Sampling, environmental assessment

Uncertainty on tlie other hand, represents lack of knowledge about factors such as adverse effects or contaminant levels which may be reduced with additional study. Generally, risk assessments carry several categories of uncertainly, and each merits consideration. Measurement micertainty refers to tlie usual eiTor tliat accompanies scientific measurements—standard statistical teclmiques can often be used to express measurement micertainty. A substantial aniomit of uncertainty is often inlierent in enviromiiental sampling, and assessments should address tliese micertainties. There are likewise uncertainties associated with tlie use of scientific models, e.g., dose-response models, and models of environmental fate and transport. Evaluation of model uncertainty would consider tlie scientific basis for the model and available empirical validation. 

J. Crepin and R.L. Johnson, Soil sampling for environmental assessment, in Soil Sampling and Methods of Analysis, ed. M.R. Carter, Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 5-18 (1993). 

Department of Energy, Environmental Assessment of the Properties Adjacent to and Nearby the Former Middlesex Sampling Plant,... 

In view of these complexities, environmental studies that seek to verify proposed cause-effect relationships between contamination and response need to be carefully designed to avoid bias and misunderstanding. Most environmental assessments adopt a multi-tiered approach to testing, in which combinations of biological responses (biomarkers) are measured in tissue samples, body fluids or at the whole organism level to indicate exposure to or adverse effects of contamination.8. Auffret and colleagues60 surveyed Pacific oysters from the Atlantic coast of Brittany after the Erika oil spill between... 

Two clearly distinct strategies to an environmental assessment sampling and analysis program that satisfy the requirements for comprehensive information are the direct and phased approaches. In a direct approach, all streams would be carefully sampled and the samples subjected to complete, detailed analysis using compound specific analytical techniques. In a phased approach, all streams would first be sur-... 

The analytical procedures applied at Level 2 may be extensions of the Level 1 procedures. In most cases, however, Information developed at Level 1 will provide background for selection and utilization of more sophisticated sampling and analysis techniques. Because Level 2 analyses must positively identify the materials in sources which have already been found to cause adverse environmental effects, these analyses are the most critical of all three levels. It is equally important, however, that the analyses be conducted in an information-effective manner. This is because increasing specificity and accuracy result in cost escalations which are, at best, exponential rather than proportional. Due to the multiplicity of analytical techniques required and the potential for unnecessarily high expenditures, the analyses must be conducted with a full awareness of the information requirements of the environmental assessment program. 

Vlahakis, J. and Abelson, H., Environmental Assessment Sampling and Analytical Strategy Program. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency Report, EPA-600/2-76-093a, NTIS No. PB 261-259/AS (5/76). 

Pillai KC, Matkar VM. 1987. Determination of plutonium and americium in environmental samples and assessment of thorium in bone samples from normal and high background areas. J Radioanal NucI Chem 115 217-229. 

Diaz-Baez, M.C. and Roldan, F. (1996) Evaluation of the agar plate method for rapid toxicity assessment with some heavy metals and environmental samples, Environmental Toxicology and Water Quality 11 (3), 259-263. 

This chapter will focus on the potential limitations of analytical methods used for speciation of trace elements in solid, but not necessarily natural samples, both from the molecular level point of view (e.g. XANES) and from the environmental assessment point of view (sequential extractions). 

Emissions. An environmental assessment has been carried out to evaluate the effects of sulfur-asphalt during and after construction. Ambient air samples were taken from points around the pugmill and paver and analyzed for hydrogen sulfide (H2S), sulfur dioxide (S02), carbon disulfide (CS2), carbonyl sulfide (COS), mercaptans (RSH), and total hydrocarbons. The results indicated that no problems exist in terms of current health standards during construction or after. Typical test results obtained at the pugmill and methods used are given in Table II. 

There is a disadvantage with the use of environmental samples to assess the radionuclide concentrations in the environment. This arises since there is the potential for contamination of such samples from previously deposited material. This material may or may not originate from the source of interest and there may be significant contributions from Chernobyl and weapons fallout. Such contamination pathways include soil splash, the deposition of resuspended material and root uptake. 

Lopez-Avila, V. Hirata, P. Kraska, S. Flanagan, M. and Taylor, J. H., Jr. "Analysis of Water and Soil Samples from Lysimeter Columns," Acurex Final Report prepared for EPA-Las Vegas, Environmental Assessment Division, EPA Contract... 

While checking compliance with the WFD provisions is currently based on laboratory chemical analysis of spot samples taken in a defined frequency, it is desirable to introduce other techniques for improving the quality of the assessment and to benefit from resource saving developments as they become available. Currently, advanced methods for environmental assessment, referred to as complementary methods in this chapter, are under development and evaluation. Examples of tlicsc techniques are ... 

Environmental assessment studies require characterization of PNAs in large numbers of samples over extended periods. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS) and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) have demonstrated their capability to provide specific information for samples containing complex mixtures of pollutants. The GC/MS and HPLC methods, however, require sophisticated and expensive instrumentation and elaborate experimental procedures. Two techniques, synchronous luminescence (SL) and room temperature phosphoresence (RTP), developed at Oak Ridge National Laboratory have been applied to the work... 

Biological monitoring techniques such as immunoassays are now available for environmental analysis. These form the basis of low cost, rapid, and highly selective kits for the determination of specific compounds or classes of compounds, such as polyaromatic hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenyls, pesticides, herbicides, and insecticides, in food, water, and soil matrices. They are simple to use and are well suited to screening sites for contamination prior to sampling and laboratory analysis. Immunoassays can also be applied to blood and urine samples for assessing the exposure of organisms to contaminants. 

The procedure presented with the universal wet digestion can also be applied to all types of biological materials from the environment and extensive use of this feature is made in the analysis of samples to be stored in the German Environmental Specimen Bank[98-100], a new tool in environmental assessment and protection operated by the institute for the government. Other important applications to environmental biological materials deal with studies on the uptake of ecotoxic metals deposited with rain by certain types of common plants and by the needles and leaves of forest trees. 

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