Radiation estimates

Neglccring gas radiation, estimate the, outlet temperature of the air. The physical constants for the waste gases may be assumed the same as for air, are ... 

The product of incomplete burning of various fuels (mainly fossil fuel and biomass burning) is called black carbon (BC), made up of soot and smoke aerosol that absorbs short-wave radiation. Estimates of direct RF due to BC and organic matter (OM) have led to values in the interval from +0.16 Wm-2 to +0.42 W m-2, and total absorbed radiation within 0.56 Wm 2-2 Wm-2 (the parameter BC + OM is the soot component that appears as a result of fossil fuel burning). About 10% (by mass) BC constitutes aerosol formed in biomass burning, for which RF values were obtained from 0.16Wm-2 to -0.74Wm-2, whereas the radiation absorbed by aerosol varies within 0.75 Wm-2 to 2Wm"2. 

Thermal energy generated by the electrical resistance of a 5-mm-diameter and 4-m-long bare cable is dissipated to the surrounding air al 20°C. The voltage drop and the electric current across Ihe cable in steady operation ate measured to be 60 V and 1.5 A, respectively. Disregarding radiation, estimate the surface temperature of the cable. 

New A-bomb studies alter radiation estimates. Science, Vol. 212, May 22, 1981. 

E. Marshall, New A-Bomb Studies after Radiation Estimates, Science, 212 48-51 (1981). 

Uranium is another example of a contaminant often found in phosphate fertilizers. Also, highly radioactive Polonium-210 contained in phosphate fertilizers is absorbed by the roots of plants and stored in its tissues tobacco derived from plants fertilized by rock phosphates contains Polonium-210 which emits alpha radiation estimated to cause lung cancer. 

The number of bacterial cells is easily counted by BL in the use of bacterial weapons, as in terrorist attacks. Luciferase BL is a fast and sensitive assay for analysis of the toxic properties of various unknown chemical gases and compounds that could threaten populations. These applications are crucial for military and civilian defense. A typical example is the radiation estimations by Beneckea Harvey BL bacteria [46]. 

This is known as the Planck radiation law. Figure A2.2.3 shows this spectral density fiinction. The surface temperature of a hot body such as a star can be estimated by approximating it by a black body and measuring the frequency at which the maximum emission of radiant energy occurs. It can be shown that the maximum of the Planck spectral density occurs at 2.82. So a measurement of yields an estimate of the... 

Analysis of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum emanating from the star Sirius shows that = 260 nm. Estimate the surface temperature of Sirius. 

From the Heisenberg uncertainty principle as stated in Equation (1.16) estimate, in cm and Hz, the wavenumber and frequency spread of pulsed radiation with a pulse length of 30 fs, typical of a very short pulse from a visible laser, and of 6 ps, typical of pulsed radiofrequency radiation used in a pulsed Fourier transform NMR experiment. 

Question. The v = I — 0 interval is 4160 for H2 and 2990 for H2. Estimate the wavelength closest to the exciting radiation from an XeCl laser of stimulated Raman shifted radiation for each of the gases. 

Cosmetics industry Cosmic radiation Cosmid vectors Cosmocil CQ CoS04 7H20 Cosorb process Cost estimates... 

The maximum efficiency with which photosynthesis can occur has been estimated by several methods. The upper limit has been projected to range from about 8 to 15%, depending on the assumptions made ie, the maximum amount of solar energy trapped as chemical energy in the biomass is 8 to 15% of the energy of the incident solar radiation. The rationale in support of this efficiency limitation helps to point out some aspects of biomass production as they relate to energy appHcations. 

The time constants characterizing heat transfer in convection or radiation dominated rotary kilns are readily developed using less general heat-transfer models than that presented herein. These time constants define simple scaling laws which can be used to estimate the effects of fill fraction, kiln diameter, moisture, and rotation rate on the temperatures of the soHds. Criteria can also be estabHshed for estimating the relative importance of radiation and convection. In the following analysis, the kiln wall temperature, and the kiln gas temperature, T, are considered constant. Separate analyses are conducted for dry and wet conditions. 

An estimate of the relative importance of convection and radiation can be obtained from the ratio of the radiation-to-convection transfer rates. This dimensionless number reduces to... 

Free Hquid hydrocarbons and water flash vaporize if they contact hot surfaces. A rough estimate of the magnitude of such an event can be made if the free Hquid levels are known. Localized flashing of hydrocarbons and water continues, even iu the absence of free Hquids, whenever particles of waste are suddenly brought iu contact with hot surfaces or exposed to iatense radiation. 

To the extent that radiation contributes to droplet heatup, equation 28 gives a conservative estimate of the time requirements. The parameter ( ) reflects the dependence of the convective heat-transfer coefficient on the Reynolds number ... 

When a sound wave comes in contact with a soHd stmcture, such as a wall between two spaces, some of the sound energy is transmitted from the vibrating air particles into the stmcture causing it to vibrate. The vibrating stmcture, in turn, transmits some of its vibrational energy into the air particles immediately adjacent on the opposite side, thereby radiating sound to the adjacent space. For an incomplete barrier, such as a fence or open-plan office screen, sound also diffracts over the top and around the ends of the barrier. The subject of this section is confined to complete barriers that provide complete physical separation of two adjacent spaces. Procedures for estimating the acoustical performance of partial barriers can be found in References 5 and 7. 

The simplest calculation of radiation damage involves only monatomic materials and has been described by many authors (17—20). For polyatomic materials, a calculation procedure for estimating damage energy from ion implantation has been outlined (8). The extension of this formalism (8) to direct calculations of damage energies in polyatomic materials has been addressed by several authors (11,21—24). 

If possible comparisons are focused on energy systems, nuclear power safety is also estimated to be superior to all electricity generation methods except for natural gas (30). Figure 3 is a plot of that comparison in terms of estimated total deaths to workers and the pubHc and includes deaths associated with secondary processes in the entire fuel cycle. The poorer safety record of the alternatives to nuclear power can be attributed to fataUties in transportation, where comparatively enormous amounts of fossil fuel transport are involved. Continuous or daily refueling of fossil fuel plants is required as compared to refueling a nuclear plant from a few tmckloads only once over a period of one to two years. This disadvantage appHes to solar and wind as well because of the necessary assumption that their backup power in periods of no or Httie wind or sun is from fossil-fuel generation. Now death or serious injury has resulted from radiation exposure from commercial nuclear power plants in the United States (31). 

Radiation dose for radiopharmaceuticals in a given patient can only be estimated. There are significant variations in dose from internally deposited... 

Nonetheless, these methods only estimate organ-averaged radiation dose. Any process which results in high concentrations of radioactivity in organs outside the MIRD tables or in very small volumes within an organ can result in significant error. In addition, the kinetic behavior of materials in the body can have a dramatic effect on radiation dose and models of material transport are constandy refined. Thus radiation dosimetry remains an area of significant research activity. 

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