Pipeline infrastructure

A complete hydrogen pipeline infrastructure would include both transmission and distribution to minimize the overall hydrogen transport cost [6], When one considers the cost for pipeline infrastructure, there will be some semioptimized operating pressure range that determines the overall costs, including the cost of compression based on the distance... 

A breakdown of the current delivery costs for pipelines for an urban market of 250,000 people is shown in Figure 10.6. The forecourt/refueling site cost represents a large fraction of the total delivery cost (40%). This is predominantly the cost of compression and storage at the refueling site and highlights the importance of these areas for cost reduction. The reminder of the cost is split relatively evenly over the cost of the other parts of the pipeline infrastructure. This means that some cost reduction is needed in all of these areas. 

Transporting gaseous hydrogen via a new pipeline requires high initial capital investment cost however, only a small fraction of the total cost of the pipeline infrastructure. Comprehensive R D efforts are needed and are being conducted for cost reduction,... 

This article addresses LNG as an alternative to pipeline distribution. In contrast to natural gas LNG requires no firm pipeline infrastructure, as it is transported as a bulk commodity in cryogenic tanks on road, rail and sea. The article suggests that countries that lack a well-developed gas distribution system may draw upon recent experience from countries that employ LNG, as for instance Norway. Although Norway is among the largest exporters of natural gas in the world, the domestic outlook is that natural gas will be introduced to the Norwegian energy system basically in liquid phase. 

In contrast to base-load operation peak shaving differs from the large-scale LNG trains that are generally driven by cost of the LNG as a commodity in comparison with alternative fuels available in the market. Peak shaving on the other hand can be justified by the cost of omitted pipeline charges and the reduced capital cost pertaining to pipeline infrastructure [7]. 

Pipeline infrastructure reliability Stress, strain and temperature... 

Historically, the major players in the industry have been jacks-of-all-trades. Integrated businesses in which a single company controlled the entire process - from the supply of raw materials to the outlets for its products - were the norm. Because of the development of individual national markets and the lack of a significant pipeline infrastructure, Europe became even more integrated than North America. 

Pipelines are a vital part of the energy and chemical transportation infrastructure of modern society. They are generally viewed as a safe and economical means to deliver liquid and gas fuels and chemical raw materials to customers. However, the perception of their safety varies with segments of the population. The most common pipeline with which the average person is familiar is the gas main of the local gas distribution system with service connections to homes and businesses in communities. The overall pipeline infrastructure is much more and includes long-distance transmission pipelines in addition to local distribution system pipelines. Besides natural gas, transmission pipelines transport crude oil, gasoline, petroleum products, and chemical products. 

Haeseldonckx D, D haeseleer W (2007) The use of the natural-gas pipeline infrastructure for hydrogen transport in a changing market structure. Int J Hydrogen Energ 32 1381-1386... 

The first conference, entitled Economic Mechanisms Sustaining Robust Development of Natural Gas Investment and Infrastructure , was held in Berlin on June 1, 2007. Its objectives were to set out the issues for the subsequent project, and to oppose European and North American perspectives. There was a very broad overview of the relevant topics, ranging from pipeline infrastructure investments, strategic use of storage, geopolitical issues (with a focus on Eastern Europe) to the numerical modeling of international natural gas supplies. 

The last fact induces that investment and management of pipeline systems are completely organized by the participating companies and (almost) all costs are internalized. Investments in pipeline infrastructure make sense under specific circumstances only ... 

Potable water is transported to consumers through a network of pipes which consists of mains pipes with a range of sizes and connections to consumer premises by smaller service pipes. In the older industrial cities of Europe, much of the pipeline infrastructure is around 100 years old and iron water pipes and gas pipes are subject to decay by corrosion. Water pipes suffer additionally from internal build up of deposits lining the pipes which eventually interfere excessively with flow capacity. 

A significant benefit of shale gas plays is that many exist in areas previously developed for natural gas production therefore, much of the necessary pipeline infrastructure is already in place. Many of these areas are also proximal to the nation s population centers, thus potentially facilitating transportation to consumers however, additional pipelines will have to be built to access development in areas that have not seen gas production before (Muhlfelder, 2009). 

Baitfum S, Grtiger F, Grube T, Krieg D, Linssen J, Weber M et ed (2013) GIS-based scenario calculations for a nationwide German hydrogen pipeline infrastructure. Int J... 

In flat cultivated landscapes it is often not possible to walk in a straight line from one point to another point. Instead, paths are more or less rectilinear. Think for example of urban environments or rectangular patches of farmland, where transportation routes or pipeline infrastructure often must follow public roads. Let p be the length of such diversion connecting two arbitrary points relative to their straight line distance. Below we refer to this ratio as the diversion ratio. For a random variable X we denote with ju(X) its mean. 

Future research will be aimed at extending the current MXSTRJiC model to incorporate the case of repeated games. In so doing, it will be possible to simulate realistic scenarios in which continuous attacks are directed to the same supply chain, e.g. the repeated attacks performed on a specific critical pipeline infrastructure Talarico et al. (2014). Moreover, additional real-life constraints can be included in the model such as a limited budged for security (or for the attacks), criticality of the infrastructures constituting the whole supply chain and so forth. Additional information about the characteristics of the transported goods can be included in the model. As a matter of fact, the hazardousness of these materials can influence the consequences of a potential attack. 

The Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA) oversees pipeline and hazardous materials transportation safety. The administration oversees the nations pipeline infrastructure, which accounts for 64% of energy commodities consumed in the United States. The Office of Pipeline Safety (OPS) functions as the safety authority for the nation s 2.3 million miles of natural gas and hazardous liquid pipelines. The office administers a national regulatory program to ensure the safe pipeline transportation of natural gas, liquefied natural gas, and hazardous liquids by pipeline. The Accountable Pipeline Safety and Partnership Act of 1996 requires that OPS adopt rules requiring interstate gas pipeline operators to provide maps of their facilities to the governing body of each municipality in which a pipeline traverses. 

S. Ciaraldi, A. Abdallah, A.M. Attia, H.A. El-LeU, S. Bedair, M. Konecki, A. Lain 1999. Rehabilitation of GUPCO s massive and aged pipeline infrastructure in the Gulf of Suez. Corrosion Prevention and Control 46 (5), 122-132. 

Small-scale local generation off the pipeline infrastructure... 

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