Pheromone influences

Gangrade B. and Dominic C. (1985). Evaluation of the involvement of the vomeronasal organ in the pheromonal influences on the estrous cycle of the laboratory mouse. Anim Reprod Sci 8, 181-185. 

Keveme E.B, (1983). Pheromonal influences on the endocrine regulation of reproduction. Trends Neurosci 6, 381-384. 

Wysocki C.J. and Preti G. (1998). Pheromonal influences. Arch Sex Behav 27, 627-634. 

Pheromones have been defined as substances released by an individual into the external environment which precipitate a particular reaction in a conspecific (Karlson and Liischer 1959). Pheromones are used by species in a variety of phyla (see e.g. McClintock, Jacob, Zelano and Hayreh 2001), and there exist many examples of pheromone-mediated behaviour in a wide range of mammals, particularly in relation to mating behaviour and maturation (see e.g. Vandenbergh 1983). In humans however, the question of whether pheromones influence behaviour was recently listed by Science magazine as one of the top 100 outstanding questions (Anon 2005). A recent review of behavioural and anatomical studies relating to the function of pheromones in human interactions concluded that while a small number were unambiguously supportive , none seemed ultimately conclusive (Hays 2003). 

Leonard, J.E., Ehrman, L., and Schorsch, M. (1974). Bioassay of a Drosophila pheromone influencing sexual selection. Nature, 250, 261-262. 

F. H. Bronson, Pheromonal Influences on Mammalian Reproduction. In Perspectives in Reproductive and Sexual Behaviour, M. Diamond, Ed. Indiana Press Bloomington, IN, 1968 pp 341-361. 

Morris, N.M. Udry, R.J. 1978. Pheromonal influences on human sexual behavior an experimental search. J. Biosoc. Sci., 10, 147—157. 

Bronson, F.H. 1968. Pheromonal influences on mammalian reproduction. In Perspectives in Reproduction and Sexual Behaviour, (Ed. by M. Diamond), pp 341—361. Bloomington Indiana University Press. 

When delivery of glandular secretions was diminshed (expts. i and ii), a female tended not to respond to the male. These results support the contention that male courtship pheromones influence female receptivity in N. viridescens. Rogoff published only a brief abstract of his work, however, and the experimental investigation of courtship pheromones in N. viridescens has been continued only recently. Paul Watson (pers. comm.) has devised a new technique to occlude genial glands in N, viridescens. Using a two-step... 

Dominic, C. J., and Pandey, S. D., 1978, Pheromonal influences on estrous cycle of the Indian field mouse Mis booduga Gray, Indian J. Exptl. 

This experimental system will allow us to choose between alternate hypotheses of pheromonal influences on population dynamics, given the appropriate manipulations of demographic parameters on the islands. It is critical that hypotheses concerning the puberty pheromones are based not only on empirical evidence but also on theoretical results pertaining to the age of first reproduction and how this trait interacts with other life-history characters. 

Bronson, F.H. Pheromonal Influences of Endocrine Regulation of Reproduction. Endocrine Responses to Primer Pheromones in Mammals. In W. Breipohl ed. Olfaction and Endocrine Regulation, p. 103-113. London IRI Press Limited. 1982. 

Bronson, F.H. Pheromonal Influences on Reproductive Activities in Rodents. In M.C. Birch ed. Pheromones, p. 344-365. Amsterdam North Holland/Elsevier. 1974. 

Keverne, E.B. Pheromonal Influences on the Endocrine Regulation of Reproduction. Trends Neurosci. 6, 381-384 (1983). 

Gangrade, B.K., and C.J. Dominic Evaluation of the Involvement of the Adrenals in the Pheromonal Influences on the Estrus Cycle of Laboratory Mice. Exp. Clin. Endocrinol. 84,13-19 (1984). 

Pass, B., and D.A. Steven Pheromonal Influences on Rodent Agonist Behavior. In D. Muller-Schwartze and M.M. Mozell eds., Chemical Signals in Vertebrates, p. 185-206. New York Plenum Press. 1977. 

The production of a female-influencing secretion from the chin gland of male Plethodontid salamander (P. jordani) points to a similar extension of function by the acquisition of female olfactory sensitivity to an intercellular signal protein. Female receptivity is enhanced by a male cytokine-like compound of the interleukin-6 family, in its released form. Rollman et al. (1999) note that pheromonal activity is a previously unrecognised function for cytokines. 

AOS responsiveness to hormonal influences is shown in the action of sodefrin on the lateral nasal sinus of newts (Cynops). The receptors in the accessory pocket are differentially affected by pituitary and ovarian hormones (Toyoda et al., 2000). The local EOG response to the pheromone (Fig. 5.1) was enhanced by the presence of prolactin or of estrogen alone. Receptor sensitivity increase is perhaps an alternate strategy to AOS receptor density increase several alternate routes of signal receptor adaptation (Fig. 7.1) have been hypothesised (Sorenson and Stacey, 1998). 

Fig. 7.12 Urinary pheromones and Micmcebus populations reproductive influences on Mouse-lemurs. Left weak intra-sexual effects, Right weak inter-sexual effects (c.f. Fig. 7.11) for interactions with photoperiod effects, see text (after Perret, 1992 and 1995 Schilling et al., 1984).

Toyoda F. and Kikuyama S. (2000). Hormonal influence on the olfactory response to a female-attracting pheromone, sodefrin, in the newt, Cynops pyrrhogaste. Comp Biochem Physiol [B] 126, 239-245. 

Claims of commercial manufacturers notwithstanding, it is evident that pheromones do not function as behavioural releasers in humans in the same way as they do in other species. Instead of searching for specific reactions to purported human pheromones, it may be that these chemicals are better described as modulators (Jacob and McClintock 2000) which influence psychological states and, thereby, also influence behaviour in a variety of fashions depending on the situation in which they are experienced, or the accompanying cues. The co-occurrence of different cues can affect their interpretation (Rowe 1999). In humans, we know that odour cues provide non-redundant information about potential mates because, while both visual and olfactory cues may be used to gauge physical attractiveness, the information in each is not equivalent (Roberts, Little, Gosling, Jones, Perrett, Carter and Petrie 2005). 

The psychological laboratory, the usual testing ground for isolated effects, may not allow us to fully or adequately investigate the influences of pheromones. It will certainly not allow us to carry out the recommendation made implicit by Jacob et al. (2002, p. 282) If it does not function under normal, nonexperimen-tal social conditions, then it is not a pheromone . With this in mind, we set out to test the effects of androstadienone within as normal a social context as we could. 

Benton, D. (1982) The influence of androstenol - a putative human pheromone - on mood throughout the menstrual cycle. Biol. Psychol. 15, 249-256. 

Wyatt, T.D. (2003) Pheromones and Animal Behaviour. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Yahr, P. (1983) Hormonal influences on territorial marking behavior. In B.B. Svare (Ed.), Hormones and Aggressive Behavior, New York, pp. 145-175. 

By contrast, the accessory olfactory system is thought to be involved in the detection of odors that influence a variety of reproductive and aggressive behaviors (Keverne 1999). Sensory neurons are located in the vomeronasal organ (VNO) and detect pheromones which gain access to the VNO by a pumping mechanism (Meredith and O Connell, 1979). VNO neurons send projections to the accessory olfactory bulb (AOB). Mitral cells of the AOB project in turn to the medial nucleus of the amygdala olfactory information is then dispatched to several hypothalamic regions such as the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, the medial preoptic area and the ventromedial hypothalamus (Scalia and Winans 1975). 

Fewell, G. D. and Meredith, M. (2002) Experience facilitates vomeronasal and olfactory influence on Fos expression in medial preoptic area during pheromone exposure or mating in male hamsters. Brain Res. 941, 91-106. 

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