Other Areas of Application

Areas of application include wood coloration [45], paper mass coloration [46] and paper surface coating in the lime press [47], the office articles and artists colors sector pigments are used in colored pencils, crayons, and writing and pastel chalks or in water colors, as well as in cosmetics, especially soap [48], 

Printing on textiles is one of the major areas of pigment application and is usually considered separately from the graphics industry. Requirements to be met by pigments for this purpose depend especially on the expected performance of the final article, the printed textile (Sec. 1.6.2.4). 

Pappas, 6th Int. Conf. Org. Coat. Sd. Technol. Proc. Athens, 1980, 587-597. 

Azo pigments carry an azo function (—N=N—) between two sp2-hybridized C atoms. They are structurally based on the general formula 

An alkyl or an aryl group is attached in the R1 position most commercially important pigments are derivatives with CH3 as R1. R2 mainly represents —HN—Ar, in which Ar is an aromatic or a heteroaromatic moiety. 

These include the enamel and ceramic industries, the manufacture of white cement, and the coloring of rubber and Unoleum. 

Titanium dioxide pigments are also used as UV absorbers in sunscreen products, soaps, cosmetic powders, creams, toothpaste, cigar wrappers, and in the food and cosmetics industry. Their most important properties are their lack of toxicity, com-patibiUty with skin and mucous membranes, and good dispersibility in organic and inorganic solutions and binders. 

Electrically conducting Ti02 pigments have been produced by specific aftertreatment to give a coating of mixed oxides of indium and tin, or antimony and tin [2.67]. 

These pigments are applied to fibers used in photosensitive papers for electrophotography, and for the production of antistatic plastics. 

---

NMR spectroscopy is one of the most widely used analytical tools for the study of molecular structure and dynamics. Spin relaxation and diffusion have been used to characterize protein dynamics [1, 2], polymer systems[3, 4], porous media [5-8], and heterogeneous fluids such as crude oils [9-12]. There has been a growing body of work to extend NMR to other areas of applications, such as material science [13] and the petroleum industry [11, 14—16]. NMR and MRI have been used extensively for research in food science and in production quality control [17-20]. For example, NMR is used to determine moisture content and solid fat fraction [20]. Multi-component analysis techniques, such as chemometrics as used by Brown et al. [21], are often employed to distinguish the components, e.g., oil and water. 

P.R.146 is a suitable candidate for a variety of special applications. The list includes wood stains, in which it is frequently blended with yellow pigments, especially with P.Y.83, and also with black to afford shades of brown. The products are fast to overcoating and stable to nitro and acid catalyzed and polyester varnishes. Intense shades match step 5 on the Blue Scale for lightfastness. Other areas of application include office articles and artists colors, cleaning agents, paper mass coloration, laundry markers, etc. In connection with cosmetics, the pigment frequently lends color to soaps. 

P.R.48 2 is less commonly found in paints. In paints, like in other areas of application, the calcium salt performs like the barium lake. Both are, for instance, equally fast to overcoating. The list of suitable application areas for both pigments is the same. P.R.48 2 is also used in oven drying paints, nitro paints, and in similar systems. Besides, it is also found in emulsion paints. While barium and calcium salts exhibit equal lightfastness in full shades, there is a considerable difference in white reductions. Increasing amounts of Ti02 render P.R.48 2 much more sensitive to light than P.R.48 . 

Besides, metal complex pigments are also used in printing inks as well as in other areas of application. 

An important application of P.Gr.8 is in the coloration of rubber. The pigment, however, is not suitable for use in blends which contain large amounts of basic fillers. It is somewhat sensitive to cold vulcanization. The colored articles usually perform well in general application but are not entirely fast to aromatic hydrocarbons and to some fats, and they are sensitive to acid and sulfur dioxide. P.Gr.8 also colors some plastics, especially LDPE and polystyrene. Heat stable up to 220°C, P.Gr.8 grades equal step 2-3 on the Blue Scale for lightfastness. Other areas of application include wallpaper and artists colors. 

Other areas of application include a number of plastics which are processed at elevated temperature. P.R.209 lends color to polyolefins (in which it only slightly affects the shrinkage), to ABS, to polyacetal resins, and other industrial polymers. 

Alkali Blue pigments are used in large volume to color office articles, especially ribbons for typewriters and computers, as well as blue copy paper. Other areas of application, such as the plastics industry, do not employ Alkali Blue pigments because of their lack of fastness. 

Other areas of application are in office articles and in the arts field, where P.Y.101 lends color to pencils, chalks, watercolors, and other articles. It is also used for fluorescent markers. 

In this context the integration of HPLC in the SMB concept has shown a tremendous potential for the development of separation process which are efficient and versatile as well as economically sound. The first separations of pharmaceutical compounds using HPLC-SMB technology were performed in the early 1990s [6 - 8]. Other areas of application, e. g., the fine chemicals, cosmetics and perfume industries have since followed suit [9]. Most importantly and as a reaction to the needs of these new areas of application, SMB systems smaller than the huge SMB-plants adapted to the needs of the petrochemical industry, are now commercially available. 

It is already over two decades since the first concepts of the use of fiber optic techniques for sensor purposes were discussed. The initial drive for the development of fiber optic sensors came from their potential use in military and aerospace applications where the cost factors of the introduction of new technology were less rigid and the working environment more hostile than is experienced with other areas of application. 

Most innovations appear to concentrate on more efficient manufacturing processes, new formulations (preparation innovation) and the transfer of preparations to other areas of application (apphcation innovation). 

Elemental boron is used in very diverse industries from metallurgy (qv) to electronics. Other areas of application include ceramics (qv), propulsion, pyrotechnics, and nuclear chemistry. Boron is nontoxic. Workplace hygienic practices, however, include avoiding the breathing of boron dust or fine powder. 

The applications of the gas chromatographic technique are many. To write chapters on the various areas of application would result in a very large monograph. The areas of application presented are those which the authors feel represent a happy medium resulting from the years of presenting the short course. Other areas of application have been covered in books and monographs currently available to the student of GC. 

The modern interest in electrochemical detectors for liquid chromatography was stimulated by the recognition that this technique was ideal for the study of aromatic metabolism in the mammalian central nervous system. Most of the papers published during the past 20 years have focused on applications of the LCEC technique to neurochemical problems. Since the First commercial detectors became available in 1974, a number of other areas of application have been explored as well. The trade publication Current Separations provides a useful... 

Concerning the other areas of application for metal alkoxides, see Chapter 12. 

For other areas of application, such as for drugs or cosmetics, different regulations apply. These regulations differ from one another with respect to the dyes permitted. This section deals with synthetic food dyes only. 

Reactive absorption is the most widely applied type of a reactive separation process. It is used for production of a number of bulk chemicals, such as nitric and sulfuric acid. It is also often employed in gas purification, e.g., removal of carbon dioxide or hydrogen sulfide. Other areas of application include olefin/paraffin separations, where reactive absorption with reversible chemical complexation is a promising alternative to cryogenic distillation. 

The challenges of application techniques are complemented by a consideration of pesticide formulation science. The development of a practical and stable formulation that has the precise chemical and physical properties to enable the delivery of the active ingredient to the site of action is central to this topic. Although the discussion in this book concentrates on the development of products for the application of pesticides to crops via the use of spray application equipment, it recognises that, firstly, the same considerations apply to other areas of application, and that, secondly, formulation science can and does influence the ultimate safety and efficacy of the product. 

Chlorthiamid is a preemergence herbicide inhibiting germination, used at a rate of 20-30 kg active ingredient/ha for total weed control, at 4-14 kg active ingredient/ha for selective weed control. It is recommended as spot treatment to control docks (Rumex spp.) and thistles (Cirsium spp.) in the renovation of old pastures. Its other areas of application are the same as those of dichlobenil (Sandford, 1964 Jenner, 1977). 

The use of DSC to investigate chemical kinetics deserves special mention. It has excited more interest and more controversy than perhaps any other area of application. It continues to generate an enormous output of literature. The basis for obtaining kinetic parameters is to identify the rate of reaction with the DSC signal and the extent of reaction with the fractional area of the peak plotted against time. It is possible to obtain the three variables, rate of reaction, extent of reaction and temperature by carrying out a series of isothermal experiments at different temperatures in much the same way as in classical kinetic investigations. The experimental procedure is not without its difficulty but the interpretation of the results is less contentious than with the alternative dynamic procedures. 

In the first part of this article, we concentrate on mathematics of its objects and concepts. In Sects. 2-5, we introduce Situation Theory as a type based information theory. It takes some set-theoretic objects as its primitive, basic objects and uses them in construction of more complex situation-theoretic objects, including situated types. We give examples from human language. They provide a clear grasp of the abstract mathematical objects, which can be used in other areas of application. In Sect. 6, we give a brief motivation of situation-theoretical objects as biologically realistic. 

---