Ocean Transport

South Africa s Richards Bay Coal Terminal, the world s biggest coal-export facility. Global trade in coal increased from 498 Mt in 1990 to 917 Mt in 2007. Coal exports are expected to continue to rise, and, therefore, the importance of ocean transport will increase. Ocean transport of coal requires a system of (1) transportation from the mine to the port (2) coal-handling facilities at the export port (3) ocean carrier networks with adequate number and size of ships, contractual obligations, management of the fleet, and route decisions (4) coal-handling facilities at the importing port and (5) transportation from the port to the customer. 

Ships are commonly used for international transportation, in sizes ranging from 

However, the ability of coal to variously self-heat (spontaneous ignition), emit flammable gases, corrode and deplete oxygen levels has made the ocean transport of this commodity a particularly 

---

The advent of a large international trade in methanol as a chemical feedstock has prompted additional purchase specifications, depending on the end user. Chlorides, which would be potential contaminants from seawater during ocean transport, are common downstream catalyst poisons likely to be excluded. Limitations on iron and sulfur can similarly be expected. Some users are sensitive to specific by-products for a variety of reasons. Eor example, alkaline compounds neutralize MTBE catalysts, and ethanol causes objectionable propionic acid formation in the carbonylation of methanol to acetic acid. Very high purity methanol is available from reagent vendors for small-scale electronic and pharmaceutical appHcations. 

Oceanic zooplankton species, wax esters in, 26 204-205 Ocean ranching, 3 198 Ocean raw materials, 17 684-699 consolidated deposits of, 17 691-694 economic aspects of, 17 697 fluid deposits of, 17 694-695 minerals recovery from, 17 695—697 unconsolidated deposits of, 17 686-691 Ocean resources, global, 17 684—686 Oceans, selenium content of, 22 11. See also Marine entries Seawater Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) power plants, 13 267, 268 26 92-93 Ocean transportation, 25 328 Ochratoxin A, 7 267-268 Ochre (mineral hematite) color, 7 333... 

Ocean transport has been used since many centuries by many nations to conduct trade between European countries and India and the far east. 

The fall of Constantinople in the first century AD made it necessary to find new oceanic routes. Oceans provide the cheapest and easiest means of transport. Modem international trade depends on ocean transport. Ocean transport has the advantage of not requiring infrastmcture. The North Atlantic Ocean route between North America and Europe is the busiest. 

Gert Jan Vandenakker, Head-Ocean Transportation Gregory R. Page, Chmn. 

Transportation facilities. Water, railroads, and highways are the common means of transportation used by major industrial concerns. The kind and amount of products and raw materials determine the most suitable type of transportation facilities. In any case, careful attention should be given to local freight rates and existing railroad lines. The proximity to railroad centers and the possibility of canal, river, lake, or ocean transport must be considered Motor trucking... 

The alternative hypothesis suggests a direct route, where long-range oceanic transport can account for the presence of PFCAs in the Arctic Ocean and thus in Arctic biota [14,163, 164]. As will be discussed later in more detail, PFOS, PFOA, PFNA and PFHxS have been reported in open ocean waters of the Pacific and Atlantic and in coastal waters of Japan, Korea and China [95,112,165]. Modelling studies indicate that the observed PFOA concentrations in oceans can be accounted for by historical and projected PFOA emissions [14, 163, 164]. 

The large scale transport of solids is conducted in large ocean going ships and barges with relatively simple off-loading and on-loading machinery. For example for coal, trans-oceanic transport costs are relatively low. Typical intercontinental costs are 10/t (Australia - Japan) or about 0.33/GJ. For smaller parcels of solids - resins etc. - the world large container fleet can be used. 

Let us explore the thermocline distribution first. As large-scale oceanic transport occurs primarily along surfaces of equal potential density, it is instructive to inspect variations along such surfaces. Figure 1.4b shows the NO distribution along the potential density surface Gg = 26.80, which represents Sub-Polar Mode Water (SPMW) in the northern hemisphere and Sub-Antarctic Mode Water (SAMW) in the southern hemisphere (Hanawa and TaUey, 2001). Nitrate concentrations near the outcrops, i.e., where the isopycnal surface intersects the surface of the ocean are near zero, but concentrations increase rapidly as one moves away from the outcrops into the ocean s interior. 

Liquefied gases are common for a variety of purposes. For example, liquid propane in cylinders is used as a domestic fuel, liquid oxygen is carried in rockets, natural gas is liquefied for ocean transport, and liquid nitrogen is used for low-temperature refrigeration. In addition, gas mixtures (e.g., air) are liquefied for separation into their component species by fractionation. 

Dowling L. M., Boreham C. J., Hope J. M., Marry A. M., and Summons R. E. (1995) Carbon isotopic composition of ocean transported bitumens from the coastline of Austraba. Org. Geochem. 23, 729—737. 

Shipment by tanker is the most economical means of ocean transport of fats and oils. A typical shipment ranges from 1814 to 9072 metric tons (2000 to 10,000 short tons). Tankers are compartmentalized and inert-gas blanketing or sparging is not employed because the gas can escape. Rather, the compartments are filled to capacity to minimize headspace air and reduce oxidative deterioration. Heating is not required to unload liquid oils, but to facilitate unloading of palm, coconut, and tallow, heating is required. 

Ocean transport might involve pipelines or ships. Small CO2 tankers already exist.However, there is currently no use of larger vessels. Nevertheless, the... 

Deep burial in remote islands was considered. However the risks of ocean transport were too great, and in addition many islands are subject to volcanic and seismic activity. 

Garrels and Mackenzie (1971) calculated global river loads based on Livingstone s (1963) data. From these figures, Kempe (1979a) deduced the following fluxes of carbon to the oceans transported by rivers ... 

The carbon content of the oceans is more than 50 times greater than that of the atmosphere. Over 95% of the oceanic carbon is in the form of inorganic dissolved species, bicarbonate (HCOj) and carbonate (CO3-) ions the remainder exists in various forms of organic carbon (Druffel et al. 1992). Oceanic uptake of C02 involves three steps (1) transfer of C02 across the air-sea interface, (2) chemical interaction of dissolved C02 with seawater constituents, and (3) transport to the deeper ocean by vertical mixing processes. Steps 2 and 3 are the rate-determining processes in the overall transfer of C02 from the atmosphere to the ocean, and oceanic transport and mixing processes are the primary uncertainties in predicting the rate of oceanic uptake of C02. 

The cost of electric power will be the sum of the cost of Methyl Fuel at the mine-mouth conversion plant, plus the cost of its transportation, and its power generation with gas turbines. With all of the capital costs included, one very large (3000 MW) complex will be about 4.00 per kilowatt hour based on 1978 dollars, coal at 570/1,000,000 Btu at the Methyl Fuel plant, and about 4500 km of ocean transport. 

Aluminum-magnesium alloys have an excellent combination of weldability, strength, and corrosion resistance, as well as exceptionally high toughness at room and low temperatures For these reasons, Al-Mg alloys are widely used for critical cryogenic applications, including the storage and ocean transportation of liquefied natural gas (LNG)... 

---