Nominalizations examples

Compounds that contain chlorine, bromine, sulfur, or silicon are usually apparent from prominent peaks at masses 2, 4, 6, and so on, units larger than the nominal mass of the parent or fragment ion. Eor example, when one chlorine atom is present, the P + 2 mass peak will be about one-third the intensity of the parent peak. When one bromine atom is present, the P + 2 mass peak will be about the same intensity as the parent peak. The abundance of heavy isotopes is treated in terms of the binomial expansion (a -I- h) , where a is the relative abundance of the light isotope, b is the relative abundance of the heavy isotope, and m is the number of atoms of the particular element present in the molecule. If two bromine atoms are present, the binomial expansion is... 

An example of a size-exclusion chromatogram is given in Figure 7 for both a bench-scale (23.5 mL column) separation and a large-scale (86,000 mL column) mn. The stationary phase is Sepharose CL-6B, a cross-linked agarose with a nominal molecular weight range of 5000-2 x 10 (see Fig. 6) (31). 

Accuracies of the flow meters discussed herein are specified as either a percentage of the full-scale flow or as a percentage of the actual flow rate. It may be convenient in some appHcations to compare the potential inaccuracies in actual volumetric flow rates. For example, in reading two Hters per minute (LPM) on a flow meter rated for five LPM, the maximum error for a 1% of full-scale accuracy specification would be 0.01 x 5 = 0.05 LPM. If another flow meter of similar range, but having 1% of actual flow rate specification, were used, the maximum error would be 0.01 x 2 = 0.02 LPM. To minimize errors, meters having full-scale accuracy specifications are normally not used at the lower end of their range. Whenever possible, performance parameters should be assessed for the expected installation conditions, not the reference conditions that are the basis of nominal product performance specifications. 

Effect of Uncertainties in Thermal Design Parameters. The parameters that are used ia the basic siting calculations of a heat exchanger iaclude heat-transfer coefficients tube dimensions, eg, tube diameter and wall thickness and physical properties, eg, thermal conductivity, density, viscosity, and specific heat. Nominal or mean values of these parameters are used ia the basic siting calculations. In reaUty, there are uncertainties ia these nominal values. For example, heat-transfer correlations from which one computes convective heat-transfer coefficients have data spreads around the mean values. Because heat-transfer tubes caimot be produced ia precise dimensions, tube wall thickness varies over a range of the mean value. In addition, the thermal conductivity of tube wall material cannot be measured exactiy, a dding to the uncertainty ia the design and performance calculations. 

Nominal Dimensions. Some dimensions do not have an SI equivalent because thek values are nominal, that is, a value is assigned for the purpose of convenient designation. For example, a 1-in. pipe has no dimension that is 25.4 mm. Another common example is the 2-by-4 piece of lumber, which is considerably smaller than 50.8 by 101.6 mm in its finished form. 

These systems, commercially known as Tberminol VP or Dowtherm A, differ from steam in some key areas which can result in operating problems unless handled properly in design (14). The low pressure—high temperature operation means that the AT/AP ratio at saturation is quite high for example, at 315°C the ratio is 25 times that of steam. This means that a pressure drop that would be nominal in a steam system (10 kPa (0.1 atm)), can not be tolerated if precise temperature control is needed. 

For airborne sound, the reference pressure is 2 X 10" Pa (29 X psi), which is nominally the human threshold of hearing at 1000 Hz. The corresponding sound pressure level is 0 dB. Conversation is about 50 dB, ana a Jackhammer operator is subject to 100 dB. Extreme levels such as a jet engine at takeoff might produce 140 dB at a distance of 3 m, which is a pressure amplitude oi 200 Pa (29 X 10" psi). These examples demonstrate both the sensitivity and wide dynamic range of the human ear. 

Example 1 Sample Quantity for Composition Quality Control Testing An example is sampling for quality control of a 1,000 metric ton (VFg) trainload of-Ks in (9.4 mm) nominal top-size bentonite. The specification requires silica to be determined with an accuracy of plus or minus three percent for two standard errors (s.e.). With one s.e. of 1.5 percent, V is 0.000225 (one s.e. weight fraction of 0.015 squared). The problem to be solved is thus calculating weight of sample to determine sihca with the specified error variance. 

Example 4 Calculation of Sample Weight for Surface Moisture Content An example is given with reference to material with minimal internal or pore-retained moisture such as mineral concentrates wherein physically adhering moisture is the sole consideration. With this simphfication, a moisture coefficient K is employed as miiltipher of nominal top-size particle size d taken to the third power to account for surface area. Adapting fundamental sampling theory to moisture sampling, variance is of a minimum sample quantity is expressed as... 

A common cause of erosion is partial obstruction of tubes by foreign bodies. At the inlet end, for example, debris such as sticks, glass fragments, and wood chips may lodge in tube ends or be held against the tubes by water flow. The nominal velocity of the water past the obstruction increases according to the degree of obstruction. It can be shown... 

In this case the shear stress (in the plastic deformation region) depends on how much plastic strain y that has accumulated and the current rate of deformation y. For example, in shock compression the shear stress t behind the shock front (where y is nominally zero) is a function of y only, as given by the implicit relationship... 

There are few problems of praetleal interest that ean be adequately approximated by one-dimensional simulations. As an example of sueh, eertain explosive blast problems are eoneerned with shoek attenuation and residual material stresses in nominally homogeneous media, and these ean be modeled as one-dimensional spherieally symmetrie problems. Simulations of planar impaet experiments, designed to produee uniaxial strain loading eonditions on a material sample, are also appropriately modeled with one-dimensional analysis teehniques. In faet, the prineipal use of one-dimensional eodes for the eomputational analyst is in the simulation of planar Impaet experiments for... 

We can now define the elastic moduli. They are defined through Hooke s Law, which is merely a description of the experimental observation that, when strams are small, the strain is very nearly proportional to the stress that is, they are linear-elastic. The nominal tensile strain, for example, is proportional to the tensile stress for simple tension... 

Finally, Fig. 8.3 shows a third form of elastic behaviour found in certain materials. This is called anelasfic behaviour. All solids are anelastic to a small extent even in the regime where they are nominally elastic, the loading curve does not exactly follow the unloading curve, and energy is dissipated (equal to the shaded area) when the solid is cycled. Sometimes this is useful - if you wish to damp out vibrations or noise, for example you... 

Figure 12-2 shows as an example the arrangement of the anode installation for the local cathodic protection of pipelines in a power station. The cooling water pipelines have a nominal diameter of DN 2000 and 2500 and a covering of earth up to 6 m. The fire-fighting pipelines have a nominal diameter of DN 100 and a covering of 1 m. All the pipelines have a bitumen coating. 

High mass resolution techniques are used to separate peaks at the same nominal mass by the very small mass differences between them. As an example, a combination of Si and H to form the molecular ion Si H , severely degrades the detection limit of phosphorous ( P) in a silicon sample. The exact mass of phosphorous ( P) is 31.9738 amu while the real masses of the interfering Si H and Si H2 molecules are 31.9816 amu and 31.9921 amu, respectively. Figure 8 shows a mass... 

Qualitatively, the spark source mass spectrum is relatively simple and easy to interpret. Most instrumentation has been designed to operate with a mass resolution Al/dM of about 1500. For example, at mass M= 60 a difference of 0.04 amu can be resolved. This is sufficient for the separation of most hydrocarbons from metals of the same nominal mass and for precise mass determinations to identify most species. Each exposure, as described earlier and shown in Figure 2, covers the mass range from Be to U, with the elemental isotopic patterns clearly resolved for positive identification. 

A closed-loop control system has a nominal forward-path transfer function equal to that given in Example 6.4, i.e. 

An example that shows that the cohesive strength of a material is less than that of the adhesional strength of the interface is that of the nominal 50,000 mile steel belted radial tire. It is a simple calculation to show that, on average, a tire leaves a monolayer of rubber particles on the road every time it makes a rotation. In essence, the strength of the adhesional bonding between the road and the tire is greater than that of the rubber within the tire. 

Example 2.7 A nylon ring with a nominal inside diameter of 30 mm, an outer diameter of SO mm and a width of S mm is to be made an interference fit on a metal shaft of 30 mm diameter as shown in Fig. 2.17. The design condition is that the initial separation force is to be 1 kN. Calculate (a) the interference on radius needed between the ring and the shaft and (b) the temperature to which the nylon must be heated to facilitate easy assembly. What will be the maximum stress in the nylon when it is in position on the shaft The coefficient of friction between nylon and steel is 0.2S. The short-term modulus of the nylon is 1 GN/m, its Poisson s ratio is 0.4 and its coefficient of thermal expansion is 100 X 10- °C- . 

I he origins of the above two errors are chfferent in cause and nature. A sim ple example is, when the mass of a weight is less than its nominal value, a systematic error occurs, which is constant in absolute value and sign. This is a pure systematic error. A ventilation-related example is, when the instrument faaor of a Pitot-static tube, which defines the relationship between the measured pressure difference and the velocity, is incorrect, a systematic error occurs. On the other hand, if a Pitot-static tube is positioned manually in a duct in such a way that the tube tip is randomly on either side of the intended measurement point, a random error occurs. This way, different phenomena create different ty pes of error. I he (total) error of measurement usually is a combination of the above two types. 

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