Neural structures

Larriva-Sahd J.A., Matsumoto A. and Sumoto A. (1994). The vomeronasal system and its connections with sexually dimorphic neural structures. Zool Sci 11, 495-506. 

Jouvet, M. (1962). [Research on the neural structures and responsible mechanisms in different phases of physiological sleep.] Arch. Ital. Biol. 100, 125-206. 

Neural structures and neurotransmitters involved in the regulation of sleep and waking in laboratory animals... 

The neural structures involved in the promotion of the waking (W) state are located in the (1) brainstem [dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN), median raphe nucleus (MRN), locus coeruleus (LC), laterodorsal and pedunculopontine tegmental nuclei (LDT/PPT), and medial-pontine reticular formation (mPRF)] (2) hypothalamus [tuberomammillary nucleus (TMN) and lateral hypothalamus (LH)[ (3) basal forebrain (BFB) (medial septal area, nucleus basalis of Meynert) and (4) midbrain ventral tegmental area (VTA) and substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) (Pace-Schott Hobson, 2002 Jones, 2003). The following neurotransmitters function to promote W (1) acetylcholine (ACh LDT/PPT, BFB) (2) noradrenaline (NA LC) (3) serotonin (5-HT DRN, MRN) (4) histamine (HA TMN) (5) glutamate (GLU mPRF, BFB, thalamus) (6) orexin (OX LH) and (7) dopamine (DA VTA, SNc) (Zoltoski et al, 1999 Monti, 2004). 

The neural structures involved in the regulation of W give rise to mainly ascending projections. In this respect (1) NA-, 5-HT-, and HA-containing neurons send long ascending projections to the forebrain and cerebral cortex ... 

In some patients believed to suffer from the irritable bowel syndrome, an underlying enteric neuromuscular disorder has later been identified [133]. The bridge to infectious diseases is also of interest, with several entero-tropic viruses in focus, and reports of lymphocytic infiltration of enteric neural structures in patients with unexplained intestinal dysmotility require further studies. 

Occasionally the nervous system becomes involved in myelomatosis, and a number of cases have been reported. The lesions in these patients include compression of neural structures by myeloma tissue or collapsed vertebra, herpes zoster, and amyloid infiltration of the peripheral nervous system. Although uncommon, a peripheral neuromyopathy in which there is no direct involvement of nerves or nerve roots has been reported, but the association of multiple myeloma with neuropathy and osteosclerotic lesion is rarer and even more unusual. Osuntokun et al. (05) has reported such a patient in Africa whose outstanding clinical features were widespread neuromyopathy associated with multiple myeloma, and general-... 

There are two types of esterases found in animal tissues. True cholinesterase which is found in neural structures, RBC and placenta and is concerned with destruction of acetylcholine released at the nerve endings. The second type is pseudocholinesterase (non-specific cholinesterase) is found in blood serum, intestines, liver and skin and is responsible for the hydrolysis of benzoylcholine and does not hydrolyse methacholine. Cholinesterase hydrolyses acetylcholine into choline and acetic acid. 

Since individuals within the colony are almost constantly encountering their nestmates, it would not be adaptive to continuously have to compare their profiles with an internal template in the long-term memory. The alternative would be to filter out all this input early in the neural structures and only react to hydrocarbon profiles that are dissimilar to the nestmate ones. With either desensitized antennae or habituated antennal lobes, individuals in the social insect colony would not detect or respond to the hydrocarbon profiles of nestmates (D-present), nor would they actively detect that non-nestmate hydrocarbon patterns are absent (U-absent) when accepting an encountered individual, as proposed by Sherman et al. (1997). Instead, they would only detect cues present on non-nestmates, since only these trigger the antennae or the antennal lobe to respond, and on this basis reject the encountered individual. Social insects would thus use the following as a simple rule of thumb if the receptor neurons are not spiking and/or the pattern of activation in the antennal lobes is not altered (no differences in nestmate recognition cues are detected), the encountered individual is accepted as a nestmate. This results in the same acceptance and rejection outcome... 

In order to understand this phenomenon, let us consider briefly the anatomical pathways by which sonic energy is perceived. The auditory system can be conveniently divided into two components the peripheral portion consisting of the external, middle and inner ears (Figure 1) and the central portion, comprising of the auditory nerve and pathways to various central neural structures (Figure 2). 

Overall, as predicted by anatomical organization and connectivity, the ventral tier nigrostriatal dopaminergic system is primarily associated with basal ganglia function related to motor behavior, whereas the dorsal tier mesocorticolimbic system is more linked to the neural structures involved in reinforcement, motivation, emotion and cognitive function. 

Mueller, R.W., Gill, S.S., and Pulido, O.M. 2003. The monkey (Macaca fascicularis) heart neural structures and conducting system an immunochemical study of selected neural biomarkers and glutamate receptors. Toxicol Pathol 31,227—234. 

The speculation that 5HT function may be related to a light-sensitive mechanism takes on added significance if considered together with current data on the function of the pineal gland. The human pineal contains more serotonin by weight than any neural structure of any mammalian species. 

The pathophysiology of both TOS and EMS involves an immunological component. Generally, early skin biopsies in both TOS and EMS showed edema and inflammatory infiltrates. Inflammatory lesions of arteries and cardiac neural structures in both EMS and TOS patients were primarily composed of lymphocytes. Persistent elevated levels in the serum level of the soluble fraction of IL-2 receptor were noted in both EMS and TOS patients, suggesting chronic immune activation. 

The task ahead may seem less daunting if we keep in mind the conceptual distinction between intelligence and g (or other psychometric factors). Intelligence involves the brain s neural structures or design features, circuitry... 

Guyenet PG. 2000. Neural structures that mediate sym-pathoexcitation during hypoxia. Resp Physiol 121 147-162. 

Pathologic findings in the heart have been described.49 50 Pathologic lesions are present in the coronary arteries, neural structures, and conduction system of the heart.50 James et al.51 reported that the cardiac abnormalities in the toxic oil syndrome resemble those described in EMS. 

However, even erythrocyte AChE measurements cannot be expected to be a perfect surrogate for the nervous tissue enzyme this is because pharmacokinetic factors may result in differential access of the inhibitor to the red cell and to neural structures. A further consideration is that, where nerve agents react with the enzyme to produce a phosphonylated structure that does not spontaneously reactivate, red cells of mammals lack the protein synthetic capability to synthesize new AChE. By contrast, in nervous tissue, after inhibition by OPs whose enzyme-inhibitor complex with AChE does not readily reactivate, activity may reappear relatively quickly. Thus, Wehner et al (1985) observed approximately 30% recovery after 24 h in di-isopropylfluorophosphate (DFP)-treated mouse CNS reaggregates, which was clearly due to synthesis de novo of AChE. Another consideration in the interpretation of butyrylcholinesterase activity measurements is that the normal range is relatively wide, rendering interpretation in individual patients difficult unless the results of previous estimations in the patient are available (Swami-nathan and Widdop, 2001). 

As discussed previously, certain FGFs are expressed at high levels during the development of the nervous system, suggesting their participation in the formation of specific neural structures. FGF-3 has been implicated in the normal development of the hindbrain (Carpenter et al., 1993), FGF-7 in the development of the forebrain (Mason et al.,... 

The results of the RREP, PET, and fMRl studies indicate common areas are activated by multiple respiratory modalities, suggesting convergent neural pathways for respiratory perception that can lead to specific respiratory sensations. The differences in brain activations with the different respiratory sensory modalities are likely due to the afferent systems activated. Each respiratory sensory modality has a unique convergent and divergent afferent input to the central nervous system and a unique temporal pattern of afferent activity. Despite well-known afferent responses to respiratory stimuli, it remains unknown which of the fMRI- and PET-imaged activated central neural structures are essential to produce specific respiratory sensations. 

---