Neural structures involved

The neural structures involved in the promotion of the waking (W) state are located in the (1) brainstem [dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN), median raphe nucleus (MRN), locus coeruleus (LC), laterodorsal and pedunculopontine tegmental nuclei (LDT/PPT), and medial-pontine reticular formation (mPRF)] (2) hypothalamus [tuberomammillary nucleus (TMN) and lateral hypothalamus (LH)[ (3) basal forebrain (BFB) (medial septal area, nucleus basalis of Meynert) and (4) midbrain ventral tegmental area (VTA) and substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) (Pace-Schott Hobson, 2002 Jones, 2003). The following neurotransmitters function to promote W (1) acetylcholine (ACh LDT/PPT, BFB) (2) noradrenaline (NA LC) (3) serotonin (5-HT DRN, MRN) (4) histamine (HA TMN) (5) glutamate (GLU mPRF, BFB, thalamus) (6) orexin (OX LH) and (7) dopamine (DA VTA, SNc) (Zoltoski et al, 1999 Monti, 2004). 

The neural structures involved in the regulation of W give rise to mainly ascending projections. In this respect (1) NA-, 5-HT-, and HA-containing neurons send long ascending projections to the forebrain and cerebral cortex ... 

Overall, as predicted by anatomical organization and connectivity, the ventral tier nigrostriatal dopaminergic system is primarily associated with basal ganglia function related to motor behavior, whereas the dorsal tier mesocorticolimbic system is more linked to the neural structures involved in reinforcement, motivation, emotion and cognitive function. 

As early as 1936, it was realised that diffuse electrical stimuli applied to the head or lumbar spinal cord of rabbits [6] or rats [7] enhance adenohypophysial activity. In an attempt to delimit the neural structures involved, closely localised electrical stimuli were applied directly to regions of the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary gland of anaesthetised animals. Electrical stimulation of the pituitary gland was ineffective in causing gonadotrophin release but such stimulation was fully effective when applied to discreet areas of the hypothalamus... 

Neural structures and neurotransmitters involved in the regulation of sleep and waking in laboratory animals... 

Occasionally the nervous system becomes involved in myelomatosis, and a number of cases have been reported. The lesions in these patients include compression of neural structures by myeloma tissue or collapsed vertebra, herpes zoster, and amyloid infiltration of the peripheral nervous system. Although uncommon, a peripheral neuromyopathy in which there is no direct involvement of nerves or nerve roots has been reported, but the association of multiple myeloma with neuropathy and osteosclerotic lesion is rarer and even more unusual. Osuntokun et al. (05) has reported such a patient in Africa whose outstanding clinical features were widespread neuromyopathy associated with multiple myeloma, and general-... 

The prefrontal cortex (PFC) is the anterior part of the frontal lobes of the brain. It lies in front of the motor and premotor areas. The PFC is divided into the lateral, orbitofrontal, and medial prefrontal areas (Barbas and Pandya, 1987, 1989). Comprehensive reviews of this structure and functions of the PFC have been published in various forms (Fuster, 1997 Goldman-Rakic, 1987 Miller and Cohen, 2001 Passingham, 1993 Tanji and Hoshi, 2008). The PFC possesses a wealth of anatomical connectivity with multiple cortical and subcortical areas, and is involved in broad aspects of behavioral control. The PFC has been implicated in complex cognitive behaviors, social behaviors, and personality expression. Recent studies of this area have revealed its role in the control of a much broader spectrum of functions, such as cross-modal and cross-temporal association of information, in the executive control of behavior, and in the top-down control of neural networks involving the cortical and subcortical areas. Among them, the executive control of action was a term coined to capture various aspects of PFC function. 

Object recognition is an attractive task for testing compounds for their potential against cognitive deficits in schizophrenia. It is a relatively simple task, with the additional benefit that it can be performed across species. Although the literature for the neural substrates involved in this task remains controversial, there does seem to be some overlap in the neural circuits that mediate object recognition in rats, primates, and humans and that contain medial temporal lobe structures (106-113). 

The pathophysiology of both TOS and EMS involves an immunological component. Generally, early skin biopsies in both TOS and EMS showed edema and inflammatory infiltrates. Inflammatory lesions of arteries and cardiac neural structures in both EMS and TOS patients were primarily composed of lymphocytes. Persistent elevated levels in the serum level of the soluble fraction of IL-2 receptor were noted in both EMS and TOS patients, suggesting chronic immune activation. 

The task ahead may seem less daunting if we keep in mind the conceptual distinction between intelligence and g (or other psychometric factors). Intelligence involves the brain s neural structures or design features, circuitry... 

From the preceding discussion it is very clear that generation of acute pain is a complex process involving many neural structures, neurotransmitters and neuromodulators. Key aspects of afferent pain signaling, cortical perception and efferent responses are outlined in Figure 3.4. 

A hands-on experience with the method is possible via the SPINUS web service [48. This service uses a client-server model. The user can draw a molecular structure within the web browser workspace (the client), and send it to a server where the predictions are computed by neural networks. The results are then sent back to the user in a few seconds and visualised with the same web browser. Several operations and different types of technology arc involved in the system ... 

The response of neural tissue to damage involves some degree of structural plasticity, as in development 855 Activation and adaptation behaviors maybe mediated by hormones 856... 

The recurrent network models assume that the structure of the network, as well as the values of the weights, do not change in time. Moreover, only the activation values (i.e., the output of each processor that is used in the next iteration) changes in time. In the biochemical network one cannot separate outputs and weights. The outputs of one biochemical neurons are time dependent and enter the following biochemical neurons as they are. However, the coefficients involved in these biochemical processes are the kinetic constants that appear in the rate equations, and these constants are real numbers. The inputs considered in biochemical networks are continuous analog numbers that change over time. The inputs to the recurrent neural networks are sets of binary numbers. 

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