Misinterpretation

Personal Errors Finally, analytical work is always subject to a variety of personal errors, which can include the ability to see a change in the color of an indicator used to signal the end point of a titration biases, such as consistently overestimating or underestimating the value on an instrument s readout scale failing to calibrate glassware and instrumentation and misinterpreting procedural directions. Personal errors can be minimized with proper care. 

A second use of arrays arises in the detection of trace components of material introduced into a mass spectrometer. For such very small quantities, it may well be that, by the time a scan has been carried out by a mass spectrometer with a point ion collector, the tiny amount of substance may have disappeared before the scan has been completed. An array collector overcomes this problem. Often, the problem of detecting trace amounts of a substance using a point ion collector is overcome by measuring not the whole mass spectrum but only one characteristic m/z value (single ion monitoring or single ion detection). However, unlike array detection, this single-ion detection method does not provide the whole spectrum, and an identification based on only one m/z value may well be open to misinterpretation and error. 

An alternative to allocating overheads by using a single method is to classify the various overheads into groups and to use the most appropriate allocation for each group. For example, depreciation would be allocated on the basis of capital cost, while indirect labor might be allocated either on the basis of direct labor cost or on the number of employees. Clearly, this alternative method is more complex, increases the associated accountancy costs, and is prone to misinterpretation and possibly abuse. 

There is the possibihty of misinterpretation of the difference between circulation time and blend time. Circulation time is primarily a function of the pumping capacity of the impeller. For axial-flow impellers, a convenient parameter, but not particularly physically accurate, is to divide the pumping capacity of the impeller by the cross-sectional area of the tank to give a superficial hquid velocity. This is sometimes used by using the total volume of flow from the impeller including entrainment of the tank to obtain a superficial hquid velociW. 

An example adapted from Verneuil, et al. (Verneuil, V.S., P. Yan, and F. Madron, Banish Bad Plant Data, Chemical Engineeiing Progress, October 1992, 45-51) shows the impact of flow measurement error on misinterpretation of the unit operation. The success in interpreting and ultimately improving unit performance depends upon the uncertainty in the measurements. In Fig. 30-14, the materi balance constraint would indicate that S3 = —7, which is unrealistic. However, accounting for the uncertainties in both Si and S9 shows that the value for S3 is —7 28. Without considering uncertainties in the measurements, analysts might conclude that the flows or model contain bias (systematic) error. 

The advantage of using relative risk results is that you can decide on the best way to improve safety at a facility without having to defend the absolute accuracy of the results. Relative results are also much less likely to be misinterpreted by people unfamiliar with QRA. The disadvantage of using relative results is that they, by definition, cannot give direct advice... 

If a catalyst is tested for commercial use, it is also important to know under production conditions how much rates are influenced by various transfer processes. Recycle reactors can execute all these tests and give information on transfer influences. In advanced research projects it is enough to know the transfer interaction during the study so that physical processes are not misinterpreted as chemical phenomena. 

Because polymers are typically non-conductive, sample charging can occur and has to be compensated carefully, e. g. by use of a low-energy electron-flood gun, to avoid line-shape distortion and misinterpretation of the measurements. 

As a set of minimum standards, ISO 9000 addresses the business community. It was intended for purchasers as a means for them to obtain products and services of consistent quality from their suppliers. In place of purchaser-specified general quality management requirements, ISO 9000 became the common requirement and hence eliminated the need for such requirements. As a consequence, it provides suppliers that meet its requirements with a demonstrable capability that others may not possess and hence such capability becomes a persuasive marketing tool that will increase market share. ISO 9000 was also intended for application to all types of industry and therefore did not contain requirements for any specific industry sector or type of products or services. Partially due to the scope of misinterpretation and the degree to which particular industries have common supplier requirements, certain industry sectors perceived the need for harmonizing such requirements in a form that added to those requirements in ISO 9000. 

Stand the text. That is, I want them to focus on The Whyoi each problem so they will develop a feeling for the behavior of composite materials and structures. I also expect use of appropriate figures that are well discussed. Figures that have not been fully interpreted for the reader are of questionable value and certainly leave room for misinterpretation. Also, I expect students to explain and describe each step in the problem-solving process with physically based reasons and explanations. Moreover, 1 expect observations, comments, and conclusions about what they learned at the end of each problem. I feel such requirements are good training for survival in today s and tomorrow s more competitive world. 

The following example highlights how lack of clarity of instructions can lead to errors of misinterpretation. 

In one plant, the operating procedures required that valve A should be placed into the "manual closed position." The process worker misinterpreted this information and instead of placing the valve controller in the manual position, he closed the block valve manually and deprived the plant of an essential feed. 

Feedback Observe change of state of system to indicate correct outcome of actions Feedback ignored or misinterpreted... 

Checklists do not provide any assistance to assess the relative importance of different items or to indicate the degree to which items may fail to meet the criteria. Thus, there is a need to Tindertake some prioritization of checklist failures, in order to avoid misinterpretation of the information. 

Having established the content of SOPs from the HTA and PHEA, ergonomics guidelines for information presentation can be used to ensure that workers can quickly refer to the instructions and that the possibility of misinterpretation is minimized. An example of such guidelines is United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority (1991). In this section, the focus will be on the inputs from the HTA and PHEA to the design of SOPs. 

It is important, especially when consistency has not been designed or built into the maintenance reporting system, to review the data reported to minimize misinterpretation. Clearly defined equipment boundaries for plant hardware are essential for the generation of relevant data. For example, one classification method may define pumps as only the mechanical portions of the pump, whereas another may include the driver (e.g., the motor) and associated controls. Interviews with operating and maintenance personnel as well as review of the maintenance procedures and documents can provide insight into the... 

Such effects principally cannot be observed in multi band detectors such as a UV diode array detector or a Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) detector because all wavelengths are measured under the same geometry. For all other types of detectors, in principle, it is not possible to totally remove these effects of the laminar flow. Experiments and theoretical calculations show (8) that these disturbances can only be diminished by lowering the concentration gradient per volume unit in the effluent, which means that larger column diameters are essential for multiple detection or that narrow-bore columns are unsuitable for detector combinations. Disregarding these limitations can lead to serious misinterpretations of GPC results of multiple detector measurements. Such effects are a justification for thick columns of 8-10 mm diameter. 

Reactant and product structures. Because the transition state stmcture is normally different from but intermediate to those of the initial and final states, it is evident that the stmctures of the reactants and products should be known. One should, however, be aware of a possible source of misinterpretation. Suppose the products generated in the reaction of kinetic interest undergo conversion, on a time scale fast relative to the experimental manipulations, to thermodynamically more stable substances then the observed products will not be the actual products of the reaction. In this case the products are said to be under thermodynamic control rather than kinetic control. A possible example has been given in the earlier description of the reaction of hydroxide ion with ester, when it seems likely that the products are the carboxylic acid and the alkoxide ion, which, however, are transformed in accordance with the relative acidities of carboxylic acids and alcohols into the isolated products of carboxylate salt and alcohol. 

When iV-substituted acylanilides 9 are treated under the same reaction conditions, the corresponding lV-substituted-2-quinolones 10 are isolated in high yields. This reaction was initially misinterpreted, but it has since been demonstrated to follow a similar mechanistic pathway to the Meth-Cohn quinoline synthesis. ... 

Sueh a behaviour of metastability has been reported in the systems Cu65Pt35 and CuAu3. It has been shown that for inereased annealing time or after meehanieal deformation LRO is obtained, whereas for too short annealing times in homogenised material only the variation of SRO with temperature is deteeted. This may lead to serious misinterpretation of alloy stability if not carefully enough investigated. 

Manufacturers catalogs are usually available and complete with capacity tables for the selection of a unit size. However, it is good practice to have this selection checked by the manufacturer whenever condidons will allow. This avoids misunderstandings and misinterpretations of the catalog, thereby assuring a better selection for the separation operation, and at the same time the experience of the manufacturer can be used to advantage. 

In some instances the baffle spacing must be rearranged to allow for a nozzle or coupling connection, ft is important that changes in baffle location be reviewed, as performance or pressure drop can be seriously affected. This is of extreme importance in vacuum units. Baffle orientation is sometimes misinterpreted by the fabricator, and this can cause serious problems where liquid drainage is concerned, or the revised vapor flow path can allow for bypassing the tube surface. 

The successful and profitable conduct of a frozen food quality program requires suitable and workable standards of product quality and condition, and suitable methods for determining the degree of product conformance with the standards. The methods used may be either subjective or objective in character, or a combination of both the most consistent and reproducible results will be obtained with objective methods. Present-day frozen food standards are, for the most part, based upon subjective methods of quality determination. These are certainly better than none at all but they are subject to considerable misinterpretation and human error, and for this reason leave much to be desired in providing a sound basis for quality control. 

However, unless the test is applied very soon after blanching, the results obtained may lead to misinterpretation and unnecessary product rejection. Peas and other vegetables yielding negative tests soon after blanching have been observed on subsequent standing and prior to freezing to yield positive reactions. This condition has been observed to carry over in the frozen and stored product. 

The reaction of plastics under test conditions to their behaviors is explained in other Chapters, particularly Chapters 2,5 to 7. Until this phase of the information is properly understood, it is best not to apply the numbers from the data sheet, for they can be a source of misinterpreted information. A con-... 

---