Microbial infection, prevention

The term pharmaceutical includes more than 4,000 chemicals used to control and treat different kinds of diseases in humans and animals. Pharmaceuticals include analgesics, anti-inflammatories, anti-epileptics, (l-blockers, compounds used to prevent and treat parasites and microbial infections (parasiticides and antibiotics) and those for combating cancer. Hormones are also a class of pharmaceuticals but due to their particular involvement in endocrine disruption, they have been discussed in a separate section (see above). 

Kross RD. 1997. Method and composition for prevention and treatment of female lower genital tract microbial infections. U.S. Patent No. 5,667.817. September 16, 1997. 

A number of 5-nitro-2-furaldehyde derivatives, called nitrofurans, are used in the treatment and/or prophylaxis of microbial infections, primarily in the urinary tract. Recent evidence suggests that the reduction of the 5-nitro group to the nitro anion results in bacterial toxicity. Intermediate metabolites modify various bacterial macromolecules that affect a variety of biochemical processes (e.g., DNA and RNA synthesis, protein synthesis) this observation may explain the lack of resistance development to these drugs. Evidence also indicates that the nitro anion undergoes recycling with the production of superoxide and other toxic oxygen compounds. It is presumed that the nitrofurans are selectively toxic to microbial cells because in humans, the slower reduction by mammalian cells prevents high serum concentrations. 

Many microbial infections and toxins are spread by biofilms. Biofilm formation occurs on virtually every surface, starting with the adhesion of planctonic cells or small dispersed biofilm fragments. Proliferation of the cells is accompanied by the expression of an extracellular polysaccharide-based matrix [6], The cells embedded in this matrix are well protected and up to 1000 times less susceptible to antibiotics [7], Once a biofilm is formed, it is extremely difficult to remove this contamination. Thus, all antimicrobial surfaces should prevent the primary attack [8], One class of antimicrobial surfaces prevents the primary attack by creating surfaces that are not sticky to microbial cells, i.e., they do not allow adhesion of these cells. The other major class of antimicrobial surfaces is based on the killing of approaching microbes (see Fig. 2). Interestingly, both approaches can be achieved either by permanent surface modifications or by releasing bioactive compounds. 

Lilius, E.-M. and Mamila, P. 2001. The role of colostral antibodies in prevention of microbial infections. Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. 14, 295-300. 

The range of antimicrobial drugs used to prevent and treat microbial infections is large for example, a contemporary textbook of antimicrobial chemotherapy lists no fewer than 43 different cephalosporin antibiotics that were already on the market or the subject of clinical trials at the time of publication. Not only are there many antibiotic products, but increasingly, these products really... 

Disinfection by the vapors of burning sulfur is an old technique that was frequently used to decontaminate wine casks. Some sulfur dioxide was left in these vessels, preventing the wine from unwanted microbial infections. 

Cutin, Suberin, and Wax. Cells exposed to air or the soil generally are covered by a cutin or suberin layer coated with wax. These polymeric sheets provide a physical barrier to penetration by some microorganisms and they also prevent leakage of water and nutrients from the cytoplasm to the plant surface. These structures have been shown to be important for resistance to microbial infection in other plants (31), but they have received limited attention in cotton. 

Sialic acid residues on cell surfaces are important as modulators of immune and complement reactivity. Most importantly, animal cells and some microorganisms are shielded from the influenee of these defence systems, since sialic acids can mask corresponding recognition sites. This has many physiological and pathological implications, as it may prevent autoimmune diseases, but can also increase the virulence of microbial infections or of cancer. 

Potential Measures to Prevent Microbial Infection and Concluding Comments... 

A combination of ML and wood vinegar was used to treat the shell surface of boiled eggs [91]. The laccase catalysis enhanced the sterilization effect of phenolic compounds (e.g., guaiacol) contained in the wood vinegar and resulted in prevention of microbial infection of the boiled eggs after storage for 21 days at 40 °C and 75% relative humidity. 

Biocidal polymers are considered to be the next generation of antibiotics which can be effectively used against microbial infections. The antimicrobial activities of silver-bearing functionalised polymers and L-lactide polymeric NP are an important aspect in the prevention of bacterial skin and urinary tract infections. Biologically derived compounds, such as bacteriocins, phytochemicals and enzymes, can be used in antimicrobial food packaging. 

The cuticular waxes of insect species may contain the following chemical classes hydrocarbons, fatty acids, alcohols, triacylglycerols and wax esters (Golgbiowski et al., 2011 Nelson Blomquist, 1995). The waxes of some species also contain aldehydes, ketones, esters and sterols. The wax compositions of insects can vary depending on stage, sex, age, and their position in the colony hierarchy. Cuticular waxes can also vary within species as a response to living conditions such as temperature, dryness and available food. The major function of insect waxes is protection against desiccation, but they also prevent microbial infections, affect the adsorption of chemicals and play a role in chemical communication... 

The microbial infection of polymer emulsions is discussed, with reference to the sources of infection, causitive organisms, effects of microbial growth in polymer emulsions, prevention of microbial infection, and the use of biocides in polymer emulsions. These factors are considered with reference to redox initiated systems. The use of broad spectrum biocides, especially those based on isothiazolin-3-one derivatives is examined. 9 refs. 

Lately, specific medical treatments that avail themselves of biological or synthetic materials have been applied to support and improve wound healing. These materials may act as passive, interactive, or bioactive dressings. Passive materials include gauzes, tulles, or other traditional products aimed at wound protection, maintenance of suitable moisture, and prevention of microbial infections (Livshits, 1988 Cornelius et al., 2007 Takeoka and Saitoh, 2012). Interactive dressings are mainly biostable polymeric films or foams that can improve gas exchange and permeability at the wound interface. Bioactive dressings have the ability to deliver active biomolecules to the lesion site (Paul and Sharma, 2004). 

On the other hand, cationic polymer brushes grafted on PET surfaces could prevent microbial infection in industrial and medical fields, such as alkyl pyridinium or quaternary ammonium moieties. Gen et al. grafted copolymerized with 4-vinylpyridine (4VP) and subsequently quaternized with hexylbromide [53,54], and N-hexyl-N -(4-vinylbenzyl)-4,4 -bipyridinium bromide chloride (HVV) [55] onto PET films for enhancing antibacterial properties. The PET films were pretreated by argon plasma to form surface... 

---