Lead industrial batteries

Secondary Lead. The emphasis in technological development for the lead industry in the 1990s is on secondary or recycled lead. Recovery from scrap is an important source for the lead demands of the United States and the test of the world. In the United States, over 70% of the lead requirements are satisfied by recycled lead products. The ratio of secondary to primary lead increases with increasing lead consumption for batteries. WeU-organized collecting channels are requited for a stable future for lead (see BATTERIES, SECONDARY CELLS Recycling NONFERROUS METALS). 

Because about 80% of the lead consumed in the United States is for use in lead—acid batteries, most recycled lead derives from this source of scrap. More than 95% of the lead is reclaimed. Hence, the bulk of the recycling industry is centered on the processing of lead battery scrap. 

The electrowinning process developed by Ginatta (34) has been purchased by M.A. Industries (Atlanta, Georgia), and the process is available for licensing (qv). MA Industries have also developed a process to upgrade the polypropylene chips from the battery breaking operation to pellets for use by the plastics industry. Additionally, East Penn (Lyons Station, Pennsylvania), has developed a solvent-extraction process to purify the spent acid from lead—acid batteries and use the purified acid in battery production (35). 

Because the nickel—iron cell system has a low cell voltage and high cost compared to those of the lead—acid battery, lead—acid became the dorninant automotive and industrial battery system except for heavy-duty appHcations. Renewed interest in the nickel—iron and nickel—cadmium systems, for electric vehicles started in the mid-1980s using other cell geometries. 

In Figure 1, the cutaway view of the automotive battery shows the components used in its constmction. An industrial motive power battery, shown in Figure 2 (2), is the type used for lift tmcks, trains, and mine haulage. Both types of batteries have the standard free electrolyte systems and operate only in the vertical position. Although a tubular positive lead—acid battery is shown for industrial appHcations, the dat plate battery constmction (Fig. 1) is also used in a comparable size. 

World production of lead—acid batteries in 1988, excluding the Eastern European central economy countries, has been estimated at 9.45 biUion. The automotive market was 6743 million or 211.6 million units. Industrial battery sales were 2082 million and consumer battery sales were 454 million. Motorcycle batteries accounted for an additional 170 million or 25 million units. Most batteries are produced in the United States, Western Europe, and Japan, but smaller numbers are produced worldwide. The breakdown in sales for the three production areas foUows. Automotive battery sales were 2304 million in the United States, 1805 in Western Europe, and 945 million in Japan. Industrial battery sales were 525 million in the United States, 993 million in Western Europe, and 266 million in Japan. Consumer battery sales were 104 million in the United States, 226 million in Japan, and 82 million in Western Europe. More than half of all motorcycle batteries are produced in Japan and Taiwan (1). 

The U.S. is the world s largest recycler of lead scrap and is able to meet about 72% of its total refined lead production needs from scrap recycling. The secondary lead industry consists of 16 companies that operate 23 battery breakers-smelters with capacities of between 10,000 and 120,000 t/yr five smaller operations with capacities between 6000 and 10,000 t/yr and 15 smaller plants that produce mainly specialty alloys for solders, brass and bronze ingots, and miscellaneous uses. 

The principal raw material for the secondary lead industry is scrap batteries. Wastewater is generated from battery acid streams, washdown streams, and saw cooling for cracking the batteries. These... 

Used industrially in the manufacture of semiconductors, and as a fumigating agent. It may be a by-product formed during charging of some lead storage batteries. 

The availability of lead-based paints, discarded oil filters, used crankcase oil, lead storage batteries, or pastures contaminated by industrial lead operations make lead one of the most common... 

Arsenic is also used in small quantities in the manufacture of lead-acid batteries (which are recycled), in the production of a few nonferrous alloys and in the electronics industry. It has been suggested that rather than importing primary arsenic for industrial uses, this could be recovered from wood waste, although the amounts required are only of the order of one to two thousand tonnes per year in Europe, and similar amounts in the USA (Lindroos, 2002). 

Lead-acid batteries can be classified into three major types or categories, namely, automotive (SLI), stationary, and motive power (industrial). In addition, there are many special batteries that cannot be easily categorized as either of the above types. As these types of batteries are constructed with different materials and design to meet the requirements of their intended end uses, each requires a particular separator with specific material composition, mechanical design, and physical, chemical, and electrochemical properties that are tailored for the battery and its relevant specific uses. These batteries are generally available in flooded electrolyte or valve regulated (sealed) versions. In this section the types... 

Sulfur is one of the four major commodities of the chemical industry. The other three are limestone, coal, and salt. Most sulfur that is produced is used to manufacture sulfuric acid (HjSO ). Forty million tons are produced each year in the manufacture of fertilizers, lead-acid batteries, gunpowder, desiccants (drying agent), matches, soaps, plastics, bleaching agents, rubber, road asphalt binders, insecticides, paint, dyes, medical ointment, and other pharmaceutical products, among many, many other uses. Sulfur is essential to life. 

---