Lead history

Multiauthor compendia discussing aspects of lead history include expert consensus treatises such as those of the U.S. EPA (1986), the U.S. ATSDR (1988), the various statements on childhood lead poisoning by the U.S. CDC (1985, 1991, 2005), the U.S. NAS/NRC (1972, 1980, 1993), and the WHO (1995). Two comparative historical and scientific analyses by Mushak have also appeared (Mushak, 1992 Mushak and Mushak, 2000), ranking or otherwise comparing lead as an economic and public health issue with environmental contaminants such as other metals, notably comparisons of lead to mercury as the highly neurotoxic methyhnercury form (Mushak and Mushak, 2000). 

America History and Life. 1964-. Ipswich, MA EBSCO. This is a basic, but comprehensive bibliographic resource for the study of U.S. and Canadian history. The print edition has two parts Part A, Article Abstracts and Citations and Part B, Index to Book Reviews and Doctoral Dissertations. The online database included some retrospective coverage of leading history journals that go back to the late nineteenth century. 

Water-pipes—Materials—History. 2. Lead—Environmental aspects— History. 3. Lead—Toxicology—History. 4. Drinking water—Lead content— History. 5. Pipe, Lead—History. 6. Lead poisoning—History. I. Title. 

Table 3 Association of Bayley MDI at 24 months of age with blood lead history...

A general prerequisite for the existence of a stable interface between two phases is that the free energy of formation of the interface be positive were it negative or zero, fluctuations would lead to complete dispersion of one phase in another. As implied, thermodynamics constitutes an important discipline within the general subject. It is one in which surface area joins the usual extensive quantities of mass and volume and in which surface tension and surface composition join the usual intensive quantities of pressure, temperature, and bulk composition. The thermodynamic functions of free energy, enthalpy and entropy can be defined for an interface as well as for a bulk portion of matter. Chapters II and ni are based on a rich history of thermodynamic studies of the liquid interface. The phase behavior of liquid films enters in Chapter IV, and the electrical potential and charge are added as thermodynamic variables in Chapter V. 

NIDDM is a much more common disease than IDDM, accounting for about 85—90% of all cases of diabetes meUitus. Whereas NIDDM may be present at any age, the incidence increases dramatically with advanced age over 10% of the population reaching 70 years of age has NIDDM. Patients with NIDDM do not require insulin treatment to maintain life or prevent the spontaneous occurrence of diabetic ketoacidosis. Therefore, NIDDM is frequendy asymptomatic and unrecognized, and diagnosis requires screening for elevations in blood or urinary sugar. Most forms of NIDDM are associated with a family history of the disease, and NIDDM is commonly associated with and exacerbated by obesity. The causes of NIDDM are not well understood and there may be many molecular defects which lead to NIDDM. 

Finally, the importance of quinolinium salts to dye chemistry accounts for the long, productive history of their synthesis. The reaction of A/-methylformanihde with ketones, aldehydes, ketone enamines, or enol acetates in phosphoryl chloride leads to high yields of /V-methylquinolinium salts (60). 

Metal compounds, particularly compounds of the heavy metals, have a history of importance as antimicrobial agents. Because of regulations regarding economic poisons in the environment they are no longer widely used in this appHcation. Mercury, lead, cadmium, uranium, and other metals have been imphcated in cases of poisoning that resulted in government response. The metals whose compounds have been of primary interest as antimicrobials are mercury, silver, and copper. 

Localized stagnation. Permeable deposits, crevices, preexisting cracks, and other conditions that result in physical shielding can lead to concentration of a corrodent in the stagnant solution, which can be 10-100 times or more greater than that measured in a bulk fluid (see Case History 9.1). 

Correct application of this principle can lead to what would appear to he peculiar recommendations. For example, if just one member of a couple is to be coated, it should be the noble member. Most coating systems leave holidays or tiny openings where the metal is exposed. If the active metal is coated, the area of exposure at the holidays can be quite small compared to the area of the noble metal, resulting in an unfavorable area ratio. On the other hand, if the noble metal is coated, the holidays provide a small cathodic area and hence a highly favorable area ratio with respect to the active metal. Similarly, if dissimilar metal fasteners must be used, they should be noble relative to the metals being fastened (see Case History 16.1). 

Another way of representing shock-wave profiles is in the form of F-t histories of the pressure or another variable at a series of points along its direction of propagation, as in Fig. 2.9. In the above example, the leading part of the shock front arrives first, effectively increasing the pressure instantaneously. The rarefaction arrives later and decreases the pressure over a time... 

The diagnostics applied to shock experiments can be characterized as either prompt or delayed. Prompt instrumentation measures shock velocity, particle velocity, stress history, or temperature during the initial few shock transits of the specimen, and leads to the basic equation of state information on the specimen material. Delayed instrumentation includes optical photography and flash X-rays of shock-compression events, as well as post-mortem examinations of shock-produced craters and soft-recovered debris material. 

Impact of a thin plate on a sample of interest which is, in turn, backed by a lower impedance window material leads to an interaction of waves which will carry an interior planar region into tension. Spall will ensue if tension exceeds the transient strength of the test sample. A velocity or stress history monitored at the interface indicated in Fig. 8.4 may look as indicated in Fig. 8.5. The velocity (stress) pull-back or undershoot carries information concerning the ability of the test material to support transient tensile stress and, with appropriate interpretation, can provide a reasonable measure of the spall strength of the material. 

The energy which drives the fragmentation process (elastic plus kinetic) is determined by the dynamic loading conditions and does not directly depend on the properties of the material at issue. The fragmentation energy, on the other hand, is an intimate property of the material and can depend in a complex way on the thermal and dynamic conditions at spall, as well as on the deformation history of the material leading to spall. 

Lead, because of its history as an air emission, has been fairly mobile and is particularly soluble in acid environments. Silver is used widely in the electronics industry. Intake of silver compounds can result in permanent discoloration of the skin and may result in damage to kidneys, lungs, mucous membranes, and other organs. 

Hydrazinopyridazines such as hydralazine have a venerable history as anti hypertensive agents. It is of note that this biological activity is maintained in the face of major modifications in the heterocyclic nucleus. The key intermediate keto ester in principle can be obtained by alkylation of the anion of pi peri done 44 with ethyl bromo-acetate. The cyclic acylhydrazone formed on reaction with hydrazine (46) is then oxidized to give the aromatized compound 47. The hydroxyl group is then transformed to chloro by treatment with phosphorus oxychloride (48). Displacement of halogen with hydrazine leads to the formation of endralazine (49). ... 

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