Kerosene-type fuels

The lower volatihty of JP-8 is a significant factor in the U.S. Air Force conversion from JP-4, since fires and explosions under both combat and ordinary handling conditions have been attributed to the use of JP-4. In examining the safety aspects of fuel usage in aircraft, a definitive study (15) of the accident record of commercial and military jet transports concluded that kerosene-type fuel is safer than wide-cut fuel with respect to survival in crashes, in-flight fires, and ground fueling accidents. However, the difference in the overall accident record is small because most accidents are not fuel-related. 

Another important application of plain-orifice atomizers is jet engine afterburner injectors. The fuel injection system typically consists of one or more circular manifolds supported by struts in a jet pipe. The fuel is supplied to the manifold by feed pipes in the support struts and sprayed into the combustion zone through the orifices in the manifold. Increasing the number of orifices and/or using a ringlike manifold may promote uniform distribution of liquid. To reduce the risk of blockage of orifices, a minimum orifice size of 0.5 mm is usually regarded as practical for kerosene-type fuels. 

It is not possible to accurately determine the cetane index for many 1 diesel and kerosene type fuel. This is because the cetane index scale cannot be utilized accurately for fuels with end points <500°F (260°C). 

Motor gasoline includes nonhighway, industrial, and miscellaneous Tractor refers to kerosene-type fuels... 

Red fuming nitric acid (15% NO2) Kerosene-type fuel 5.6 1,37 257... 

Specifications for fuel oil may include limits on the temperatures at which 10% and 90% of the fuel are distilled by the standard procedure (ASTM D-396). For kerosene-type fuel oil (ASTM D-1) these values control the volatility at both ends of the distillation range, whereas for gas oil (ASTM D-1, ASTM D-2), where the front-end volatility is not so critical, only the 90% distillation temperature is normally specified. This ensures that high-boiling-point components, which are less likely to burn and which can cause carbon deposition, are excluded from the fuel. 

A minimum volatihty is frequently specified to assure adequate vaporization under low temperature conditions. It can be defined either by a vapor pressure measurement or by initial distillation temperature limits. Vaporization promotes engine start-up. Fuel vapor pressure assumes an important role particularly at low temperature. For example, if fuel has cooled to —40°C, as at arctic bases, the amount of vapor produced is well below the lean flammabihty limit. In this case a spark igniter must vaporize enough fuel droplets to initiate combustion. Start-up under the extreme temperature conditions of the arctic is a major constraint in converting the Air Force from volatile JP-4 to kerosene-type JP-8, the military counterpart of commercial Jet Al. 

Fuel specifications from different sources may differ in test limits on sulfur, density, etc., but the same general categories are recognized worldwide kerosene-type vaporizing fuel, distillate (or gas ou ) for atomizing burners, and more viscous blends and residuals for commerce and heavy industry. Typical specifications are as follows. 

Pour point ranges from 213 K (—80°F) for some kerosene-type jet fuels to 319 K (115°F) for waxy No. 6 fuel oils. Cloud point (which is not measured on opaque fuels) is typically 3 to 8 K higher than pour point unless the pour has been depressed by additives. Typical petroleum fuels are practically newtonian liqmds between the cloua point and the boiling point and at pressures below 6.9 MPa (1000 psia). 

A classification system has been developed to describe various fuel oil types. For example 1 fuel oil is similar to kerosene, 2 fuel oil is similar to diesel fuel, and 4 fuel oil is viscous oil at room temperature and is typically used to fuel industrial furnaces. The 5 and 6 fuel oil classifications describe viscous oils which must be heated before burning. These oils are used as bunker fuels in ships and industrial power plants. 

Storable. Together with liquid hydrocarbons, hydrazine-type fuels are the most important storable liquid propellants. They include hydrazine (N2H4), MMH, unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine (UDMH), Aerozine-50 (50% N2H4 and 50% UDMH), and various blends of these fuels with other amine-based components. All hydrazine-type fuels are toxic to some degree, as are their breakdown products in the environment (especially, as in the case of dilute UDMH with nitrates and nitrites, forming carcinogenic and highly water soluble nitrosodimethylamine, or NDMA). The most notable hydrocarbon storable fuels include kerosene-based liquid propellants (RP-1, JP-8, and others). 

Petroleum Products Products obtained from the processing of crude oil, unfinished oils, natural gas liquids and other miscellaneous hydrocarbon compounds. Includes aviation gasoline, motor gasoline, naphtha-type jet fuel, kerosene-type jet fuel, kerosene, distillate fuel oil, residual fuel oil, ethane, liquefied petroleum gases, petrochemical feedstocks, special naphthas, lubricants, paraffin wax, petroleum coke, asphalt and road oil, still gas and other products. 

Fuel oils may enter the respiratory system as a vapor or an aerosol. However, the heavier the oil, the lower the vapor pressure and the less likely that one would be exposed to vapor. Exposure to aerosol would be a concern in certain spray applications of kerosene type production. If fuel oils contact skin, this could be a pathway for exposure. Finally, drinking contaminated water or food could result in ingestion of fuel oils. 

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