Infants temperaments

One important measure of the effects of maternal stress during pregnancy involves infant temperament. Maternal stress during pregnancy predicts cognitive performance deficits and fearfulness in infancy.55 Measures of temperament and behavioral reactivity in the first few years of postnatal life show the influence of prenatal stress and maternal-placental hormones.56... 

Davis, E. P., Glynn, L. M., Schetter, C. D., Hobel, C., Chicz-Demet, A., Sandman, C. A. (2007). Prenatal exposure to maternal depression and cortisol influences infant temperament. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry. 46 737—746. 

The proper application of developmental-behavioral studies requires the use of the most appropriate measurement instruments and study design features to assess sensory and motor functions, cognitive development, infant temperament, and neurological function. 

At present, few of the standard parent report or laboratory-based assessment approaches for assessing infant temperament have been utilized in behavioral teratology or behavioral toxicology studies. However there are a number of reasons that support the need for use of such measures in future studies on questions involving the safety of new ingredients added to infant formulas. Specifically, evidence indicates that measures of temperament in the first year of life predict later personality (Rothbart et al., 2000), as well as attention and behavioral problems in preschool and school-age children (Bates, 2001 Posner, 2001 Robson and Pederson, 1997). The predictive function of early temperament problems may be partly due to an increased likelihood of problems in parent-child reactivity or with impairments in children s ability to self-regulate (Bendersky et al., 1996 O Connor et al., 1993 Rossetti Ferreira, 1978 Rothbart and Bates, 1998 Schneider et al., 1989). 

Table 6-14 lists recommended indices of infant temperament for future studies of the safety of the addition of new ingredients to infant formulas. Based on available evidence, the committee strongly recommends using converging laboratory and parent report measures of temperament rather than just laboratory or just parent report measures. In addition, the committee recommends obtaining both mother and father reports for parent report measures (Wachs and Bates, 2001). Recommended parent report measures include the Infant Behavior Questionnaire or the Infant Characteristics Questionnaire. Either the LAB-TAB... 

Carey WB, McDevitt SC. 1978. Revision of the infant temperament questionnaire. Pediatrics 61 735-739 Case-Smith J, Bigsby R. 2001. Motor assessment. In Singer LT, Zeskind P, eds. Biobehavioral Assessment of the... 

Matheny AP Jr. 1991. Play assessment of infant temperament. In Schaefer CE, Gitlin K, Sandgrund A, eds. Play Diagnosis and Assessment. New York John Wiley 8c Sons. Pp. 39-63. 

Nelson CA. 1994. Neural bases of infant temperament. In Bates JE, Wachs TD, eds. Temperament Individual Differences at the Interface of Biology and Behavior. Washington, DC Ametican Psychological Association. Pp. 47-82. 

Rothbart MK. 1986. Longitudinal observation of infant temperament. Dev Psychol 22 356-365. 

Such a cumulative effect scenario is particularly likely to occur when a toxic substance is contained in formula, which may be the main nutrient source for an infant over an extended period of time. A cumulative effect process, wherein initial small deficits cumulate and become significant only over time, appears to be a particularly likely scenario when the critical mechanisms are biobehavioral in nature (Wachs, 2000). Such a process could occur when toxic exposure leads to changes in infant temperament characteristics, such as an increased level of irritability or a reduced level of responsivity. Toxin-driven changes in temperament could adversely impact upon critical influences on later development, such as patterns of parent-child relations, which over time can lead to long-term developmental-behavioral deficits (Bendersky et al., 1996 Chasnoff et al., 1987 Fried, 1989 O Connor et al., 1993 Schneider et al., 1999). 

Auerbach, J., Geller, V., Lezer, S., Shinwell, E., Belmaker, R.H., Levine, J., and Ebstein, R. (1999) Dopamine D4 receptor (D4DR) and serotonin transporter promoter (5-HTTLPR) polymorphisms in the determination of temperament in 2-month-old infants. Mol Psychiatry 4 369-373. 

Negative temperaments characterized primarily by emotions of fear, discomfort, anger, or sadness are the most easily recognized in infants and children. What is actually observed through assessments of these temperaments are the child s reactions to stimuli—new or old. The research has its limitations (for example, qualitative judgments, possible observer bias), but the questions that are asked are important and the results can be useful. 

For example, some infant or early childhood temperaments, such as an inhibited or negative emotionality, have been found to be possible precursors of psychopathology in later childhood. Children with dysfunctional temperaments may also provoke behavior from their parents that consolidates the dysfunctional temperament.50... 

Barr, R. G., M. S. Kramer, I. B. Pless, C. Boisjoly and D. Leduc (1989). "Feeding and temperament as determinants of early infant crying/fussing behavior." Pediatrics 84(3) 514-521. 

If all of the above criteria are met, then level 1 assessment instruments can be used in clinical studies of the safety of new ingredients added to infant formulas. Recommended screening instruments appropriate for level 1 neural and behavioral assessments in the first year of life are shown in Table 6-10. The screening instruments are low cost and, therefore, the committee recommends studying behavior and development from each of the domains listed in the table (visual development, audition, motor development, cognition, temperament, and neural integrity). 

TABLE 6-14 Measures Available to Test First-Year Temperament in Clinical Studies on the Safety of New Additions to Infant Formulas... 

Farent report measures Infant Behavior Questionnaire 87-item, parent report measure can be administered starting at age 3 mo assesses 5 dimensions of temperament (Rothbart, 1986)... 

Alessandri SM, Sullivan MW, Bendersky M, Lewis M. 1995. Temperament in cocaine-exposed infants. In Lewis M, Bendersky M, eds. Mothers, Babies, and Cocaine The Role of Toxins in Development. Hillsdale, NJ Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Pp. 273—286. 

Rothbart MK, Derryberry D, Hershey K. 2000. Stability of temperament in childhood Laboratory infant assessment to parent report at seven years. In Molfese VJ, Molfese DL, eds. Temperament and Personality Development Across the Life Span. Mahwah, NJ Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Pp. 85-118. 

Wachs TD, Bates JE. 2001. Temperament. In Bremner G, Eogel A, eds. Blackwell Handbook of Infant Development. Malden, MA Blackwell Publishers. Pp. 465-501. 

Measures chosen were comparable with those used in the other longitudinal studies being conducted The Bayley Scales of Infant Development (1969) were used to measure mental and psychomotor development at 6 months, 12 months and 24 months the Bayley Infant Behaviour Record and the Toddler Temperament Questionnaire (Fullard et al, 1978) to monitor behavioural problems. At 3 years the McCarthy Scales of Children s Abilities (1972) replaced the Bayley Scales, and this test was employed also at 4 years and, currently, at 5 years. At 5 years a special computer vigilance task is being employed to assess attention span and attain reaction time measures. (This task was written by Jacobson and Jacobson at Wayne State University, Detroit, USA.)... 

---