In infants and children

Primary immunodeficiencies are uncommon, and may occur in 1 in 10,000 individuals (6). Many primary immunodeficiencies are hereditary and congenital, and first appear in infants and children. Primary immunodeficiencies are classified into four main groups (7) relating to the lymphocytes (B-ceUs, T-ceUs, or both), phagocytes, or the complement cascade (8). Primary deficiency diseases result from B-ceU defects in 50% of cases, from T-ceU defects in ca 10%, and from combined B- and T-ceU defects in ca 20%. Phagocytic disorders account for 18% and complement defects occur in 2% of all cases. 

S100B Sensitive marker of hypoxic brain damage in infants and children undergoing open-heart surgery... 

Simons FE, Peterson S, Black CD Epinephrine dispensing for the out-of-hospital treatment of anaphylaxis in infants and children a population-based study. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2001 86 622-626. 

WILSON G (1999) Soy allergy in infants and children with IgE-associated cow s milk allergy. / Perfiarr. 134 (5) 614-22. 

JD Nelson, S Shelton, HT Kusmiesz, KC Haltalin. Absorption of ampicillin and nalidixic acid in infants and children with acute shigellosis. Clin Pharmacol Ther 13 879-886, 1972. 

The first-pass effect has not been extensively evaluated in infants and children. The maturational rate of metabolic pathways would be directly related to the oral bioavailability of a drug subject to first-pass effect. Drugs that undergo glucuronidation during en-terohepatic recirculation may have altered systemic availability in children up to approximately 3 years of age because of delayed maturation of conjugation. 

Resistance to drug toxic effects has also been observed in children. The incidence of aminoglycoside toxicity has been reported to be much lower in infants and children than in adults [39,48]. Diminished tissue sensitivity has been suggested as an explanation. 

M. Danish and S. Rosenbaum, Dosing considerations for non-prescription drugs in infants and children, Clin. Res. Regul. Affairs, 9, 89 (1992). 

C. Hayes, V. Butler, and W. Gersony, Serum digoxin studies in infants and children, Pediatrics, 52, 561 (1973). 

B13. van den Berghe, G., de Zegher, F., and Lauwers, P., Dopamine suppresses pituitary function in infants and children. Crit. Care Med. 22,1747-1753 (1994). 

Animal studies indicate that nutritional deficiencies in a number of essential elements (e.g., calcium, iron, zinc, copper, phosphorus) may impact the toxicokinetic and toxicological behavior of lead (ATSDR 1993 Chaney et al. 1989). In infants and children, lead retention has been shown to be inversely correlated with calcium intake (Johnson and Tenuta 1979 Sorrell et al. 1977 Ziegler et al. 1978). Zinc has been shown to have a protective effect against lead toxicity in a number of animal species (Goyer 1986 Haeger-Aronsen et al. 1976 Brewer et al. 1985 Cerklewski and Forbes 1976). 

The approach to the treatment of constipation in infants and children should consider neurologic, metabolic, or anatomic abnormalities when constipation is a persistent problem. When not related to an underlying disease, the approach to constipation is similar to that in an adult. High-fiber diet should be emphasized. 

Adult patients with acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) demonstrate an acute form of disseminated disease that resembles the syndrome seen in infants and children. 

Otitis media is most common in infants and children. 

Humans can be exposed to POPs through diet, occupational exposures (for example, farmworkers may be exposed to POPs through pesticides), industrial accidents and the environment (including indoor exposure). Exposure to POPs, either acute or chronic, can be associated with a wide range of adverse health effects, including illness and death (L. Ritter et al., 1995). Laboratory animal studies and wildlife studies have associated POPs with endocrine disruption, reproductive and immune dysfunction, neurobehavioral disorders and cancer. More recently, some POPs have also been connected to reduced immunity in infants and children and a concomitant increase in infections. Other studies have linked POPS concentrations in humans with developmental abnormalities, neurobehavioral impairment and cancer and tumor induction or promotion.4... 

It is unknown whether infants or children are more susceptible than adults to the adverse effects of phenol as stated above, developmental studies are inconclusive. Most of the information available on the toxic effects of phenol in infants and children comes from the use of phenol in medical treatments. Phenol was once used as an antiseptic in wound dressing products and there are several reports of deaths in children and infants following overzealous application of such... 

Benjamin, D.R. (1992). Mushroom poisoning in infants and children The Amanita pantherina/muscaria group, J. Toxicol. Clin. Toxicol., 30, 13-22. 

There are a number of signs and symptoms of essential fatty acid deficiency. They include scaly and thickened skin, alopecia, increased capillary fragility so that bruising readily occurs, poor wound healing, increased susceptibility to infection and growth retardation in infants and children. Some of these symptoms can be explained by deficiency of eicosanoid synthesis and/or failure to complete cell cycles in various tissues (Chapter 20). Consequently, it is important to detect a deficiency before symptoms develop. The principle underlying the method to do this is described ... 

Amitai I, Mogle P, Godfrey S, et al. 1983. Pneumatocele in infants and children Report of 12 cases. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 22(6) 420-422. 

Santhanakrishnan BR, Chithra S. 1978. Accidental kerosene poisoning in infants and children. Indian J Pediatr45(367) 265-273. 

Parenteral use Use IV chlorothiazide only when patients are unable to take oral medication or in an emergency. In infants and children, IV use is not recommended. Lupus erythematosus Lupus erythematosus exacerbation or activation has occurred. 

Lactation Thiazides may appear in breast milk. Discontinue nursing or the drug. Children Bendroflumethiazide, chlorthalidone, hydrochlorothiazide, methyclothiazide, metolazone - Safety and efficacy have not been established. Metolazone is not recommended for use in children. In infants and children, IV use of chlorothiazide has been limited and is generally not recommended. 

Anticonvulsant - In infants and children, a loading dose of 15 to 20 mg/kg produces blood levels of 20 mcg/mL shortly after administration. 

Several studies in infants and children ranging in age from 3 to 14 years of age showed that the use of PEG-electrolyte solutions are safe and effective in bowel evacuation. 

Children Safety and efficacy of carbenicillin, piperacillin, and the -lactamase inhibitor/penicillin combinations have not been established in infants and children younger than 12 years of age. Use caution in administering to newborns and evaluate organ system function frequently. 

Children Safety for use in infants and children has not been established. 

Because of the potential risk of toxicity from the large amount of the excipient propylene glycol, amprenavir oral solution is contraindicated in infants and children below 4 years of age, pregnant women, patients with hepatic or renal failure, and patients treated with disulfiram or metronidazole (see Contraindications and Warnings). 

Kearns GL, Abdel-Rahman SM, Alander SW, Blowey DL, Leeder JS, Kauffman RE. Developmental pharmacology - drug disposition, action, and therapy in infants and children. N Engl J Med 2003 18 349(12) 1157-67. 

Kearns GL, Reed MD. Clinical pharmacokinetics in infants and children a reappraisal. Chn Pharmacokinet 1989 17 Suppl 1 29-67. 

WHO. Antiretroviral therapy for HIV infection in adults and adolescents. Recommendations for a public health approach. Geneva World Health Organization (WHO) 2006. Available from URL http //www.who.int/hiv/ pub/guidelines/artadultguidelines.pdf WHO. Antiretroviral therapy of HIV infection in infants and children towards universal access. Recommendations for a public health approach. Geneva World Health Organization (WHO) 2006. Available... 

Sulfasalazine is contraindicated in individuals with hypersensitivity to salicylates, sulfonamides, sulfonylureas, and certain diuretics (furosemide, thiazides, and carbonic anhydrase inhibitors). Because it can cause kernicterus, sulfasalazine is contraindicated in infants and children under 2 years of age. Sulfasalazine passes into breast milk and is therefore contraindicated for nursing mothers. Similarly, pregnant women near term should not use this drug, although it appears to be the safest of the DMARDs during early pregnancy. 

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