Immobilization stress

Armario, A., Campmany, L., Borras, M. and Hidalgo, J. (1990). Vitamin E-supplemented diets reduce lipid peroxidation but do not alter either pituitary-adrenal, glucose, and lactate responses to immobilization stress or gastric ulceration. Free Rad. Res. Commun. 9, 113-118. 

Matuszewich, L., Filon, M.E., Finn, D.A., and Yamamoto, B.K., Altered forebrain neurotransmitter responses to immobilization stress following 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, Neuroscience 110(1), 4148, 2002. 

Takaki, A., Huang, Q. H., Somogjrvari-Vigh, A., and Arimura, A. (1994). Immobilization stress may increase plasma interleukin-6 via central and peripheral catecholamines. Neuroimmunomodulation 1, 335-342. 

Stressful stimuli of many types produce marked increases in brain noradrenergic function. Stress produces regional selective increases in NE turnover in the locus coeruleus (LC), limbic regions (hypothalamus, hippocampus, and amygdala), and cerebral cortex. These changes can be elicited with immobilization stress, foot-shock stress, tail-pinch stress, and conditioned fear. Exposure to stressors from which the animal cannot escape results in behavioral deficits termed learned helplessness. The learned helplessness state is associated with depletion of NE, probably reflecting the point where synthesis cannot keep up with demand. These studies have been reviewed elsewhere in detail (Bremner et al. 1996a,b). 

Shaham, Yavin. 1993. "Immobilization Stress-Induced Oral Opioid Self-Administration and Withdrawal in Rats Role of Conditioning Factors and the Effect of Stress on Relapse to Opioid Drugs." Psycfwpharmacotogy 111 477-85. 

PRL has been implicated in the mechanism of sleep enhancement associated with pregnancy in rats (116), and in the stress-induced increases in REM sleep. Stress stimulates PRL release (117). There are some differences in the sleep responses to various stressors (118). Immobilization stress is followed by increases in REM sleep (119) or in both REM and NREM sleep in... 

Rampin C, Cespuglio R, Chastrette N, Jouvet M. Immobilization stress induces a paradoxical sleep rebound in rat. Neurosci Lett 1991 126 113-118. 

Gonzalez MM, Debilly G, Valatx JL, Jouvet M. Sleep increase after immobilization stress role of the noradrenergic locus coeruleus system in the rat. Neurosci Lett 1995 202 5-8. 

Prabhakaran et al. indicated that noise could be a potent stressor and cause disturbances in the biochemical parameters of the body. It is presumed that most of the effects are indirect, being manifested through the activation of autonomic nervous system that liberates catecholamines and HPA axis responsible for the liberation of corticosteroids [104], In 1989, Hershock and Vogel found that in male Sprague-Dawley rats, acute immobilization stress could affect serum triglyceride and nonesterified fatty acid values and that these effects were diet and time dependent however, the rats total cholesterol levels were unaffected by stress [105], In addition, in 1996 Brennan et al. pointed out that stressed animals had higher levels of the cholesterol parameters than did home cage controls [106],... 

Hershock D, Vogel WH. The effects of immobilization stress on serum triglycerides, nonesterified fatty acids, and total cholesterol in male rats after dietary modifications. Life Sci 1989 45 157-165. 

Ricart-Jane D, Rodriguez-Sureda V, Benavides A, Peinado-Onsurbe J, Lopez-Tejero MD, Llobera M. Immobilization stress alters intermediate metabolism and circulating lipoproteins in the rat. Metabolism 2002 51 925-931. 

Mikhailova, O.N., Gulyaeva, L.F., and Filipenko, M.L., Gene expression of dmg metabolizing enzymes in adult and aged mouse liver A modulation by immobilization stress, Toxicology, 210,189, 2005. 

Immobilization stress li Time out of shelter8 f Plasma epinepherine 67... 

Hauger RL, Millan MA, Lorang M, Harwood JP, Aguilera G (1988) Corticotropin-releasing factor receptors and pituitary adrenal responses during immobilization stress. Endocrinology 123(1) 396—405... 

Such imbalanced antioxidant systems in schizophrenia could lead to oxidative stress- and ROS-mediated injury as supported by increased lipid peroxidation products and reduced membrane polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). Decrease in membrane phospholipids in blood cells of psychotic patients (Keshavan et al., 1993 Reddy et al., 2004) and fibroblasts from drug-naive patients (Mahadik et al., 1994) as well as in postmortem brains (Horrobin et al., 1991) have indeed been reported. It has also been suggested that peripheral membrane anomalies correlate with abnormal central phospholipid metabolism in first-episode and chronic schizophrenia patients (Pettegrewet al., 1991 Yao et al., 2002). Recently, a microarray and proteomic study on postmortem brain showed anomalies of mitochondrial function and oxidative stress pathways in schizophrenia (Prabakaran et al., 2004). Mitochondrial dysfunction in schizophrenia has also been observed by Ben-Shachar (2002) and Altar et al. (2005). As main ROS producers, mitochondria are particularly susceptible to oxidative damage. Thus, a deficit in glutathione (GSH) or immobilization stress induce greater increase in lipid peroxidation and protein oxidation in mitochondrial rather than in cytosolic fractions of cerebral cortex (Liu et al., 1996). 

Liu J, Wang X, Shigenaga MK, Yeo HC, Mori A, et al. 1996. Immobilization stress causes oxidative damage to lipid, protein, and DNA in the brain of rats. FASEB J 10 1532-1538. 

Kehoe L, Janik J, Callahan P (1991) Effects of immobilization stress on tuberoinfundibular dopaminergic (TIDA) neuronal activity and prolactin levels in lactating and non-lactating female rats. Life Sci 50 55-63. 

Kvetnansky R, Tilders FJH, Van Zoest ID, Dobrakovova M, Berkenbosch F, Culman J, Zeman P, Smelik PG (1987) Sympathoadrenal activity facilitates P-endorphin and a-MSH secretion but does not potentiate ACTH secretion during immobilization stress. Neuroendocrinology 45 318-324. 

Pacak K, Armando I, Fukuhara K, Kvetnansky R, Palkovits M, Kopin IJ, Goldstein DS (1992) Noradrenergic activation in the paraventricular nucleus during acute and chronic immobilization stress in rats an in vivo microdialysis study. Brain Res 589 91-96. 

The cholinergic system is not only modified by physical stress but is also influenced by a variety of other stress factors. Rats exposed to repeated immobilization stress showed diminished ChAT activity in brain basal ganglia. ChAT activity also decreased in the cortex, hypothalamus, hippocampus, and the mid-brain of rats after... 

It has been demonstrated that the hippocampal cholinergic system is actively involved in stress response. Acute and chronic stress-induced changes in synaptic ACh release and choline uptake (parameter of cholinergic system) have been studied in rat hippocampus. Acute as well as chronic intermittent immobilization stress increased ACh release whereas, choline uptake increased after acute stress and decreased after chronic stress. Repeated cold stress has been shown to decrease the total ACh content in basal ganglia and hypothalamus, whereas its amount increased in the duodenum of rat. Similarly, cold stress resulted in a decrease of ACh levels in the hypothalamus and hippocampus of rat. It has been assumed that the stores of ACh in the hippocampus of a rat that are exposed to stress may become depleted. However, Costa et al. ° and Mizukawa et al. failed to find any change in rat ACh after stress. After electric shock stress, the ACh concentration was found to be depleted in brain regions of rat and mice. Following 2 h of mild restrain stress, choline uptake was increased in hippocampus, septum, and frontal cortex of rat. " The administration of chronic electric shock to rats has increased the ACh content in the medulla. ... 

Gottesfeld, Z., Kvetnansky, R., Kopin, I.J., and Jacobowitz, D.M., Effects of repeated immobilization stress on glutamate decarboxylase and choline acetyltransferase in discrete brain regions, Brain Res., 152, 374, 1978. 

Takayama, H., Mizukawa, K., Ota, Z., and Ogawa, N., Regional responses of rat brain muscarinic cholinergic receptors to immobilization stress. Brain Res., 436, 291 1987. 

Higashi, T. Ninomiya, Y. IwaM, N. Yamauchi, A. Takayama, N. Shimada, K. Studies on neurosteroids XVin. LC-MS analysis of changes in rat brain and serum testosterone levels induced by immobilization stress and ethanol administration. Steroids 2006, 71 (7), 609-617. 

If histamine degradation is a physiological function of vitamin C, it is necessary to delineate the tissue level of ascorbic acid required for this effect. In the rat, which is capable of synthesizing ascorbic acid, serum ascorbic acid rose from 1.10 mg/100 ml to 1.63 mg/100 ml within 30 min of immobilization stress, nearly a 50% increase (Nakano and Suzuki, 1984). Liver ascorbate in these animals fell significantly after 15 min of stress, then rose dramatically to over 60% of the initial value within the next 15 min, indicating elevated hepatic biosynthesis of the vitamin. Adrenal ascorbic acid stores fell to 50% of the initial value following immobilization stress, and these levels remained depressed at 4 hr post-stress. Blood histamine levels rose 80%, from 38 to 68 ng/ml, peaking at about 30 min post-stress (Nakano and Suzuki, 1984). Hence, in the rat, stress induced a rapid rise in serum ascorbate which was fueled by ascorbic acid mobilized from tissue stores and by hepatic synthesis of ascorbate. 

Antihypertensive, Cardiotonic Effects - A previous review suggested that "the tetrahydrocannabinols warrant evaluation in the treatment of essential hypertension". A -THC has since been found to significantly lower the blood pressure of rats and block the appearance of hypertension in immobilized rats. At 20 mg/kg s.c., the hypotensive effect persisted over a 96 hr. period and completely counteracted the pressor effects of repeated immobilization stress. 

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