General costs

CeUular urea—formaldehyde and phenoHc resin foams have been used to some extent in interior sound-absorbing panels and, in Europe, expanded polystyrene has been used in the design of sound-absorbing doors (233). In general, cost, dammabUity, and cleaning difficulties have prevented significant penetration of the acoustical tile market. The low percent of redection of sound waves from plastic foam surfaces has led to their use in anechoic chambers (216). 

In general, similarity or general cost ratios estimates are used for developing screening estimates when an estimate is required quickly and a limited accuracy is acceptable. Detailed cost ratios or detailed labor and materials estimates are generally developed prior to actual appropriation of funds to develop a better estimate for budgeting and cost control purposes. 

Plume Containment. WeUs can be placed at a contaminated site to prevent the contamination from spreading further or migrating offsite. In the past, containment efforts often reHed on physical methods such as bentonite slurry trenches, grout curtains, sheet pilings, weU points, and fixative injections. Containment by judiciously placed weUs generally costs less, takes less time to install, and is more flexible because pumping rates and locations can be varied. 

In general, cost data will be available for multiple units. Typically, the cost of production for 1 week or of a specific order is computed and an average cost per unit obtained. This average value Y for the batch should be plotted against the corresponding learning-cuive value X calculated oy Eq. (9-66) ... 

Absorption, rate-of-return, and marginal pricing have been considered here on the basis of manufacturing cost. Total cost, which is the sum of manufacturing and general costs, can also be considered as the basis. In this case the appropriate profit to consider is the net annual profit rather than the gross annual profit. 

Static and Flexible Budgets Overhead cost can significantly affect the profitability of a projec t and is the only cost outside the control of the project manager. The project is expected to contribute a definite amount toward the expenses of the company and will be charged this amount even if the production rate is zero. This is the fixecTcomponent of the overhead cost and will include directly allocable costs such as depreciation and a proportion of general costs such as office salaries and heating. 

SiphonSizers vaiy so widely in configuration that general cost data are not meaningful. 

The details of specifications for bag filter dust collectors are important to a proper and operable design selection. There are many variables which must be furnished by the manufacturer so that the user can understand how the unit operates mechanically and the unit s dust loading capabilities. The larger the air/cloth ratio for the unit, the smaller will be its physical dimensions and generally, cost however, the higher will be the frequency of cleaning. This can be quite troublesome, therefore low values of this ratio are preferable, consistent with the analysis of overall performance. 

For instance, equipment made of monel generally costs 6.5 times as much as the same item constructed of carbon steel. If 25% of the equipment purchased for a plant were made of monel, this would increase the equipment costs by 237%, and the factor cost estimate would be 2.37 times that for a plant constructed of carbon steel. This is unreasonable, since the cost of buildings, roads, wiring, piping utilities, insulating, and instrumentation are independent of the materials of construction. In fact the only major changes would be in the process piping, which,... 

The absorption and adsorption processes must be designed specifically for each waste-gas system. Most are relatively new processes, and generalized cost data are not available. 

Sometimes these wastes are nontoxic and can be deposited in a sanitary landfill. This generally costs between 4 and 5 per ton.61 Landfill operations can, however, be expected to increase in price as land becomes scarcer, pollution laws become tougher, and maybe even disposal taxes are levied. 

Chiral crown ethers such as 13 are suitable alternatives to the ammonium salts and not decomposed under alkaline conditions. They usually have higher catalyst turnover than the chiral ammonium salts, and the design of catalysts will be much easier. However, they are, in general, costly and difficult to prepare on large scale. Polyols (eg., (RR)-TADDOL14) also serve as phase transfer catalysts. 

Table 3.1 General cost factors for conventional methods of disposal. Data from Younos (2005)...

Recently, Lewis-acid-catalyzed nucleophilic substitution reactions of propargyl alcohols have been described. In general, costly transition metals such as Ru, Re, Pd or Au are used in these transformations. At this point Bi(III) salts are believed to be a cheap and environmentally benign alternative. 

General cost estimates for phytoremediation range from 3 to 100 per cubic meter. The annual costs of using phytoremediation in a cropping system is approximately 0.02 to 1 per cubic meter. These annual costs are significantly less than the costs associated with alternative remediation technologies (D20756H, p. 42). 

According to the vendor. Microcat products generally cost less than one cent per pound of soil... 

No general cost information is given for the DuPont/Oberlin microfiltration technology. However, specific cost information is provided in the case study for the Pahnerton Zinc Superfund (PZS) site. A document entitled DuPont/Oberlin Microfiltration Technology (SITE) contains a table (Table I) on page 10 that shows the filtration media cost per gallon of waste filtered (D12108U, p. 10). 

According to a 1997 Environment Australia source, the general costs for SCWO technologies are 120 (U.S. dollars) to 140 per dry ton. These costs assume some pretreatment and certain operating conditions (D22124Z, pp. 22, 32). 

Small portable corona discharge ozone generators (with capacities of less than 10 lb per day) typically cost 10,000 to 20,000. Larger portable units can cost more than 75,000. Laboratory treatability studies generally cost 5000 to 10,000 (D15853W). 

According to the vendor, cost for a 400 x 30 x 3-ft aeration curtain with soil vapor extraction of off-gases is approximately 1.2 million. In general, costs are very site specific (personal communication Paul Bitter, Radian International, L.L.C., 1997). 

Roy F. Weston, Inc., owns and operates two TISs the TIS-5, capable of treating 7 tons per hour (tph) of waste, and the TIS-20, designed to treat up to 30 tph. Both employ a two-stage combustion process for incineration of hazardous waste. Transportable incineration is generally cost-effective for sites containing more than 1000 tons of contaminated media. 

Beta-lactam antibiotics are generally costly and marketed at a price of around 100 to 165/kg. Thus, even 1 % increase in yield via improvement in separation efficiency would offer substantial cost benefit in -lactam production. For a typical production plant of capacity 5 x 10 kg/annum, a gross annual benefit of 50,000-250,000 can be expected 192]. The capital investment in LM process, a typical process, the flow design of which is shown in Fig. 7, is also likely to be low... 

For the simplified analysis only 1) is taken into consideration. All other costs are either marginal or highly depend on the individual process of the user and should therefore not be part of general cost-benefit analyses. Nevertheless they might be important for a specific case. The possible influence of disposal costs is described in Chapter 4.4.3. 

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