Fossil fuel combustion sources

Before going into the details of the ENPs, this is important to define the use of this term in the context of this article. The International Standard Organisation (ISO/TC 146/SC 2/WG1 N 320) defines these as a particle with a nominal diameter smaller than about 100 nm. The ENP is a widely accepted term to represent those nanoparticles originating from various manufacturing or engineering processes. This is used to make these nanoparticles distinct from those originating from fossil fuel combustion sources such as vehicles or industries [4],... 

The EPA Method 6 provides procedures for measuring sulfur dioxide emissions from stationary sources where the gas sample is extracted from the exhaust stack. Ammonia, water-soluble cations, and fluorides cause interferences with SOx measurements. Method 6A concerns sulfur dioxide, moisture, and carbon dioxide measurements from fossil fuel combustion sources by chemically separating the SO2 and CO2 components, where different reagent chemicals are used. Method 6C discusses the use of instrument analyzers to measure... 

Results from many studies have been reported on the types and levels of PAHs, with particular emphasis on B[a]P, B[a]A, chrysene, benz[e]acephenanthrylene (benzo[fc]fluoranthene), benzoMfluoranthene, indeno[l,2,3-C(i]pyrene, DB[fl,/t]A, and benzo[g/t/]perylene. As noted by Menzie et al. (2533), all of these PAHs have been identified in exhausts or effluents from fossil fuel combustion sources, in soils, sediments, and water, and in a variety of commonly used foodstuffs. 

Energy About 83% of U.S. energy comes from fossil fuel combustion. Source U.S EIA Annual Energy Review 2011... 

Fuel Tech, I989B, The NO,OUT Process is a New Chemical and Mechanical System For Cost Effective NO, Reduction From Fossil Fueled Combustion Sources, Fuel Tech, Inc., Stamford, CT. 

The acidity of rainfall is associated with carbon, sulphur and nitrogen oxidation, principally from industrial and fossil fuel combustion sources. These anthropogenic emissions may induce a disequilibrium in the atmosphere redox balance, a system more susceptible to these modifications because of its lower dimensions when compared to the hydrosphere and lithosphere (Stum et al., 1987). 

Selection of pollution control methods is generally based on the need to control ambient air quaUty in order to achieve compliance with standards for critetia pollutants, or, in the case of nonregulated contaminants, to protect human health and vegetation. There are three elements to a pollution problem a source, a receptor affected by the pollutants, and the transport of pollutants from source to receptor. Modification or elimination of any one of these elements can change the nature of a pollution problem. For instance, tall stacks which disperse effluent modify the transport of pollutants and can thus reduce nearby SO2 deposition from sulfur-containing fossil fuel combustion. Although better dispersion aloft can solve a local problem, if done from numerous sources it can unfortunately cause a regional one, such as the acid rain now evident in the northeastern United States and Canada (see Atmospheric models). References 3—15 discuss atmospheric dilution as a control measure. The better approach, however, is to control emissions at the source. 

Continuing dependence on fossil fuels raises several major ethical issues. Ethical questions concerning our responsibilities to future generations arc raised by the fact that fossil fuels are a nonrenewable energy source, so that eveiy barrel of oil or ton of coal burned today is forever lost to future generations. Further, the by-products of fossil fuel combustion pose hazards to both present and future generations. 

Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) Is a major pollutant originating from natural and man-made sources. It has been estimated that a total of about 150 million tons of NOx are emitted to the atmosphere each year, of which about 50% results from man-made sources (21). In urban areas, man-made emissions dominate, producing elevated ambient levels. Worldwide, fossil-fuel combustion accounts for about 75% of man-made NOx emissions, which Is divided equally between stationary sources, such as power plants, and mobile sources. These high temperature combustion processes emit the primary pollutant nitric oxide (NO), which Is subsequently transformed to the secondary pollutant NO2 through photochemical oxidation. 

As seen in Table 12-2, global NO production is dominated by anthropogenic sources. In an urban environment, virtually all NO is from fossil fuel combustion. 

Uses/Sources. Intermediate in nitric and sulfuric acid production nitration of organic compounds and explosives found in vehicle emissions and fossil fuel combustion... 

Anthropogenic sources of fluoride include fossil fuel combustion and industrial waste. Hydrogen fluoride is water soluble and emissions are readily controlled by acid gas scrubbers. HF emission from coal combustion, that is considered to be the main anthropogenic source of HF, was estimated to be 0.18 Tg annually emission of HF from the combustion of petroleum and natural gas is almost certainly negligible [24]. Apparently only limited data are available concerning total annual emissions of HF from industrial operations however, there is evidence that emissions of fluorides have been declining [24,25]. 

Haynes, B. S., Soot and Hydrocarbons in Combustion, in Fossil Fuel Combustion A Source Book (W. Bartock and A. F. Sarofim, Eds.), pp. 261-326, Wiley, New York, 1991. 

Nitrous oxide is important not only as a greenhouse gas but, as discussed in Chapter 12, as the major natural source of NC/ in the stratosphere, where it is transported due to its long tropospheric lifetime (Crutzen, 1970). The major sources of N20 are nitrification and denitrification in soils and aquatic systems, with smaller amounts directly from anthropogenic processes such as sewage treatment and fossil fuel combustion (e.g., see Delwiche, 1981 Khalil and Rasmussen, 1992 Williams et al., 1992 Nevison et al., 1995, 1996 Prasad, 1994, 1997 Bouwman and Taylor, 1996 and Prasad et al., 1997). The use of fertilizers increases N20 emissions. For pastures at least, soil water content at the time of fertilization appears to be an important factor in determining emissions of N20 (and NO) (Veldkamp et al., 1998). 

The air emissions of fossil fuel combustion are dispersed and diluted within the atmosphere, eventually falling or migrating to the surface of the Earth or ocean at various rates. Until recently, most attention was focused on the so-called primary pollutants of fossil fuel combustion that are harmful to human health oxides of sulphur and nitrogen, carbon monoxide, suspended particles (including soot), heavy metals, and products of incomplete combustion. These pollutants are most concentrated in urban or industrialized areas close to large or multiple sources. However, the primary pollutants may interact with each other, and with atmospheric constituents and sunlight, forming secondary pollutants that disperse far beyond the urban-... 

Specifically, rapid urbanization, with the associated growth in industry and transportation systems, has increased regional concerns with regard to emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. According to estimations for the year 2000, sulfur dioxide emissions in Asia surpassed the emissions of North America and Europe combined. The primary manmade source of sulfur and nitrogen in the Asia-Pacific region is fossil fuel combustion in... 

Source Any combustion of fossil fuels. Combustion installations are responsible for 955 X 106 t/yr released into the ah and 64.9% of the total emissions from industry in Europe. 

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