Experimental Efforts

Experimental verification of the reactivity of lanthanum strontium manganite (LSM) with YSZ has been made by many researchers. Lau and Singhal [3] confirmed that LSM and YSZ can react with each other to form lanthanum zirconate, La2Zr207, at high temperatures. In addition, they also found the 

To minimise reactions between the cathode and the electrolyte, in Japan, most research efforts have focused on the A-site-deficient lanthanum manganite. In the USA and Europe, however, efforts [50] have been made to seek alternative cathodes, but with only limited success. Perhaps the most significant finding has been the use of composite cathodes in contact with the YSZ electrolyte. These composite cathodes minimise cathode/electrolyte interaction by mixing LSM and YSZ powders and laying down a thin layer of this mixture on the electrolyte [10]. Another step forward has been the use of an activation process to reduce the polarisation loss at the electrode [51]. 

Yoshida et al. made systematic investigations on the effect of using partially stabilised zirconia (PSZ, Y2O3 content = 3 mol%) on the electrochemical performance of cathodes with different dopants and their concentrations [52], The overpotential of the LSM/PSZ is always and systematically higher than that of the same LSM with fully stabilised YSZ. This is apparently due to the chemical interaction between LSM and PSZ that is, the tetragonal phase (on the surface of the PSZ electrolyte) is transformed into the cubic phase after manganese dissolution into the tetragonal phase [53]. This increases the overpotential of the LSM cathode. 

In this subsection, experimental efforts are presented to determine parameters for phase separation kinetics of polymer/solvent and polymer/monomer/precipitant systems. It is necessary to first apply these methods for polymer/solvent systems, since theoretical bases of experimental methods are well established for such systems. Later, they are applied to relevant ternary systems. 

Light scattering techniques have been developed to determine the mobility, diffusion coeflBcient, and gradient-energy coefficient for phase separating polymer systems. 

From these experimental studies (Hashimoto, et al., 1983,1984, 1989 Inaba et al., 1986 Izumitani and Hashimoto, 1985 Kumaki and Hashimoto, 1986 Nojima et al., 1982, p. 225 and 907 Nose, 1987 Snyder et al., 1983 Snyder and Meakin, 1985 van Aartsen, 1970), it follows that the above-mentioned quantities can be obtained 

For an early stage of phase separation by spinodal decomposition, it has been shown (Hashimoto et al., 1983 Izumitani and Hashimoto, 1985 Sasaki and Hashimoto, 1984 Snyder, et al., 1983) that 

Slightly polydisperse polymethacrylic acid (PMAA) samples were also used in this study. The PMAA sample had molecular weight, M , of 2 x 105 g/mol and a polydispersity index, of 1.40. Methacrylic acid used was purchased from 

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The maximum-likelihood method, like any statistical tool, is useful for correlating and critically examining experimental information. However, it can never be a substitute for that information. While a statistical tool is useful for minimizing the required experimental effort, reliable calculated phase equilibria can only be obtained if at least some pertinent and reliable experimental data are at hand. 

I am indebted to my students, post-doctoral fellows and collaborators, particularly Cliris Michaels, Eric Sevy, Amy Mullin, Zhen Lin, Charles Tapalian, Professor Mark Muyskens and Dr Ralph Weston who have contributed to tire insights and experimental efforts described here. 

Since the initial discovery[1,2] and subsequent development of large-scale synthesis of buckytubes[3], various methods for their synthesis, characterization, and potential applications have been pursued[4-12). Parallel to these experimental efforts, theoreticians have predicted that buckytubes may exhibit a variation in their electronic structure ranging from metallic to semiconducting, depending on the diameter of the tubes and the degree of helical arrangement[13-16]. Thus, careful characterization of buckytubes and their derivatives is essential for understanding the electronic properties of buckytubes. 

As is common in heterocyclic chemistry, many studies concern tautomeric equilibria. While quantum chemical calculations are straightforward for the question of the most stable isomer, experiments are sometimes very demanding. Therefore, quantum chemistry can easily provide answers that may require substantial experimental effort. Comparatively few studies concern the investigation of entire reaction paths. This is much more demanding than computing a limited number of tautomers, of course, but usually provides a very detailed picture of the reaction mechanism. In certain cases, it was only possible to judge the nature of a chemical reaction on the basis of quantum chemical calculations. 

The measurement of transport numbers by the above electrochemical methods entails a significant amount of experimental effort to generate high-quality data. In addition, the methods do not appear applicable to many of the newer non-haloalu-minate ionic liquid systems. An interesting alternative to the above method utilizes the NMR-generated self-diffusion coefficient data discussed above. If both the cation (Dr+) and anion (Dx ) self-diffusion coefficients are measured, then both the cation (tR+) and anion (tx ) transport numbers can be determined by using the following Equations (3.6-6) and (3.6-7) [41, 44] ... 

Common to all three aims is that silico-derived predictions can rationalize experimental efforts either by well-directed very specific molecular biological experiments like site directed mutations or e.g., by reducing the number of compounds to screen experimentally for drug design. 

The residence time or contact time discussed in the preceding section is a simple average. Hyman (H21) pointed out that the residence time of any one gas molecule could vary widely from the mean because of the tortuous paths followed by the gas bubbles from the gas inlet to the surface. Knowledge of gas residence time is important for design purposes and is necessary for an understanding of the behavior of gas-liquid dispersions (W5). Relatively little experimental effort has been devoted to this area. 

A wide and systematic variation of structure, usually only possible with a high experimental effort, can be realized. 

As the density of devices placed on the silicon wafer increases, the problems of autodoping and interdiffusion become more acute and the high temperature limitation of the above reactions has prompted much experimental effort to develop epitaxial deposition at lower temperature. This has been accomplished in the following experimental developments ... 

Explicit mechanisms attempt to include all nonmethane hydrocarbons believed present in the system with an explicit representation of their known chemical reactions. Atmospheric simulation experiments with controlled NMHC concentrations can be used to develop explicit mechanisms. Examples of these are Leone and Seinfeld (164), Hough (165) and Atkinson et al (169). Rate constants for homogeneous (gas-phase) reactions and photolytic processes are fairly well established for many NMHC. Most of the lower alkanes and alkenes have been extensively studied, and the reactions of the higher family members, although little studied, should be comparable to the lower members of the family. Terpenes and aromatic hydrocarbons, on the other hand, are still inadequately understood, in spite of considerable experimental effort. Parameterization of NMHC chemistry results when NMHC s known to be present in the atmosphere are not explicitly incorporated into the mechanism, but rather are assigned to augment the concentration of NMHC s of similar chemical nature which the... 

Singlet diradicals are usually extremely short-lived intermediates. For example, trimethylene (TM, 2) was observed to have a fast decay time of 120 fs by femtosecond spectroscopy [84, 85]. Since the localized 1,3-cyclopentanediyl diradical (62) was characterized by Buchwalter and Closs in 1975 [81, 82], experimental efforts have been made to prepare and characterize the persistent, localized singlet 1,3-diradicals. Some experimental achievements of the localized diradicals are collected in Fig. 25 and Table 3. It should be mentioned that the literature of experimental studies selected here is not exhaustive and more related references can be found in [83-115] and others. 

The consideration that many zeolite types exist, each with many tunable properties (e.g., pore size and alumina content), leads not only to a wealth of options but also to a high level of complexity. Owing to this complexity and limited understanding of zeolite formation and permeation behavior, a lot of experimental effort is required in this field, slowing down developments toward successful application. 

Paradoxically, all these significant recent contributions to the theory of the ORR, together with most recent experimental efforts to characterize the ORR at a fuel cell cathode catalyst, have not led at aU to a consensus on either the mechanism of the ORR at Pt catalysts in acid electrolytes or even on how to properly determine this mechanism with available experimental tools. To elucidate the present mismatch of central pieces in the ORR puzzle, one can start from the identification of the slow step in the ORR sequence. With the 02-to-HOOads-to-HOads route appearing from recent DFT calculations to be the likely mechanism for the ORR at a Pt metal catalyst surface in acid electrolyte, the first electron and proton transfer to dioxygen, according to the reaction... 

Multi-residue Method S19 of the DFG Manual,including Cieanup Procedure Xll-6 (gel-chromatographic cleanup), has been used successfully in many laboratories because of its broad applicability for the gas-chromatographic determination of pesticide residues in foodstuffs. DFG method S19 is also included in the respective European Standards. Subsequently, a modification of the extraction and partition step has been implemented. The modified method requires less experimental effort and eliminates the use of dichloromethane, which is an undesirable solvent for toxicological and ecological reasons. As the results from validation studies demonstrate,... 

There have been numerous theoretical and experimental efforts to explain the mechanism by which ozone reacts with double bonds of unsaturated substances (11,12,35). Perhaps the more widely accepted reaction is the Criegee mechanism which produces the two groups A and B (as shown below) ( 36-42) ... 

After the discovery of the combined charge and space symmetry violation, or CP violation, in the decay of neutral mesons [2], the search for the EDMs of elementary particles has become one of the fundamental problems in physics. A permanent EDM is induced by the super-weak interactions that violate both space inversion symmetry and time reversal invariance [11], Considerable experimental efforts have been invested in probing for atomic EDMs (da) induced by EDMs of the proton, neutron, and electron, and by the P,T-odd interactions between them. The best available limit for the electron EDM, de, was obtained from atomic T1 experiments [12], which established an upper limit of de < 1.6 x 10 27e-cm. The benchmark upper limit on a nuclear EDM is obtained from the atomic EDM experiment on Iyt,Hg [13] as d ig < 2.1 x 10 2 e-cm, from which the best restriction on the proton EDM, dp < 5.4 x 10 24e-cm, was also obtained by Dmitriev and Senkov [14]. The previous upper limit on the proton EDM was estimated from the molecular T1F experiments by Hinds and co-workers [15]. 

Unfortunately, considerable experimental effort is sometimes expended on flow cells that are neither well characterized hydrodynamically nor of evident practical interest (D12, D13). 

From this illustration we can see that the added detail of the radial temperature profile near the wall that could be provided by CFD simulations does not help in obtaining better estimates for the standard heat transfer parameters. It also implies that experimental efforts to measure temperatures closer to the wall are, in fact, counter-productive. Finally, it is clear that the standard model with plug flow and constant effective transport parameters does not fit satisfactorily to temperature profiles in low-Abeds. These considerations have led us to look for improved approaches to near-wall heat transfer. 

The microreactor in Fig. 1 demonstrated the ability to rapidly obtain comprehensive information about a given chemical transformation, e.g., glycosylation, over a wide range of conditions (Ratner et al. 2005). Experimental efforts and time were considerably reduced and valuable starting materials conserved by combining the microreactor with auto-... 

Most energetic contributions are, as we have discussed, difficult to predict and large experimental efforts have for that reason been devoted to derive systematic trends in the energetics of classes of materials. In this chapter we will try to convey an overview of periodic trends in the thermodynamic properties of inorganic compounds and we will also present selected examples illustrating some of the more usual rationalization schemes. Finally, trends in enthalpy of mixing are treated. Also here we aim to look at trends and rationalization schemes. The chapter is by no means exhaustive - only selected classes of compounds and selected rationalization schemes are discussed. 

There is insufficient experimental effort available to obtain all the desirable data, and estimates are needed to fill gaps or even to help choose between discrepant values. In addition, estimated values for unknown or transient compounds can indicate rational syntheses, or possible reasons for the "nonexistence of compounds (64). 

The authors wish to express their sincere thanks to Messrs. A. Kurahashi and S. Eura for their experimental efforts. Thanks are also due to Prof. I. Yamasaki and Dr. N. Tamai who helped us with the single photon counting measurements. The present work is partly... 

In addition to the previously mentioned driving forces that determine the bulk state phase behavior of block copolymers, two additional factors play a role in block copolymer thin films the surface/interface energies as well as the interplay between the film thickness t and the natural period, Lo, of the bulk microphase-separated structures [14,41,42], Due to these two additional factors, a very sophisticated picture has emerged from the various theoretical and experimental efforts that have been made in order to describe... 

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