Environmental and Human Health Impact

Presently, BPA is deemed to be an endocrine disruptor, which can mimic body own hormones and which rather may lead to negative health effects. Thus, there are two major problems with BPA production and use the presence of BPA in free form in the wastes from its production facilities, and, subsequent leaching of BPA from various BPA-based polymers. 

The risk assessment and recommendations for safe handling of BPA during production and processing of BPA-derived polymers are presented in Table 7.14. 

Different organizations and regulatory bodies have determined BPA safety levels for humans (e.g.. Tolerable Daily Intake, Table 7.14). However, those safety levels are being questioned or under review as a result of new scientific studies. 

Despite variety of known and applied methods of BPA purification and recovery of its byproducts, BPA is still present in industrial 

Risk codes R37 (Irritating to respiratory system) R41 (Risk of serious damage to the eyes) R43 (May cause sensitization by skin contact) R62 (Risk of impaired fertility) 

---

DfE forms partnerships with industry and other interested parties to develop information on environmental and human health impacts, performance, and cost of cleaner technologies and approaches. 

Most circuit boards are FR-4 boards that meet standards for fire safety by the use of brominated epoxy resins in which the reactive flame-retardant tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) forms part of the polymeric backbone of the resin. Alternative flame-retardant materials are used in only 3-5 per cent of the FR-4 boards, but additional alternative flame-retardant materials are also imder development. Little information exists concerning the potential environmental and human health impacts of the materials which are being developed as alternatives to those used today that are based on brominated epoxy resins. 

The DfE partnership will develop information to improve the understanding of the environmental and human health impacts of new and current materials that can be used to meet the fire safety requirements for circuit boards. Project partners include electronics manufacturers, component and board manufacturers, chemical companies, trade associations, environmental groups, universities and governments. The project will consider environmental and human health impacts that can occur throughout the life cycle of a material, from development and manufacture, through product use and end of life of the material or product. Stakeholders have expressed a particular interest in understanding the combustion products that could be formed during certain end of life scenarios. The list of active partners includes ... 

A Revision of Current Models for Environmental and Human Health Impact and Risk Assessment for Application to Emerging Chemicals... 

Table 2 presents results from three different methods and studies that have performed large-scale inventories on external costs associated with environmental and human health impacts [37, 38, 44, 45]... 

Table 2 External costs for different environmental and human health impacts...

As is seen, this example shows that flame retardants might be good for society (from a socio-economic perspective) even if they cause a number of adverse environmental and human health impacts as long as the value of the avoided mortality impacts is larger. Replacement of flame retardants should only be done (from an economic perspective) if the replacement cost is smaller than the avoided environmental and human health values. 

The negative aspects of chemical additives appear to be getting more and more attention in the public debate. Results linking chemical additives to adverse environmental and human health impacts are being produced. But more results are needed. More economic valuation studies are needed to support analysis as well as impact analysis on parameters such as human fertility, animal reproduction and animal productivity. Of big concern for the authors of this chapter is the need to know more about diffuse exposure from the use of products containing chemical additives. 

The characteristics of the applied models have been described in detail in the chapters Environmental Fate Models [50] and A Revision of Current Models for Environmental and Human Health Impact and Risk Assessment for Application to Emerging Chemicals [49] and only a brief overview is given here. Since each model has its own approach (i.e., QWASI is focused on the aquatic system), the combined results are expected to give a wider view with in-depth analyses for different aspects compared to just one model with its special characteristics. 

Khaydarov RA, Khaydarov RR, Estrin Y et al (2009) Silver nanoparticles Environmental and human health impacts. In Linkov 1, Steevens J (eds) Nanomatetials Risk and benefits. Springer, Netherlands, pp 287-297... 

Finkelman, R.B. and Gross, P.M.K. (1999) The types of data needed for assessing the environmental and human health impacts of coal. International Journal of Coal Geology, 40(2-3), 91-101. 

Emerging chemical regulation, such as REACH, is focusing on the need for characterizing all chemical substances in use in terms of their environmental and human health impacts. This basic tenet of no data—no market will set the trend for regulations to be implemented in other parts of the world. The development of such information should allow sound, science-based decisions to be made about chemicals, their use, and, where necessary, substitution strategies. For the producers and down stream users of chemicals, there will be new opportunities for innovation, but within a more stable business environment than we have had in the recent past. This has to be positive for flame-retardants as well as for other chemicals. 

The function of life cycle assessment (LCA) is to evaluate environmental burdens of a product, process, or activity quantify resource use and emissions assess the environmental and human health impact and evaluate and... 

ENVIRONMENTAL AND HUMAN HEALTH IMPACT ASSESSMENTS OF BATTERY SYSTEMS... 

Total life cycle analyses may be utilized to establish the relative environmental and human health impacts of battery systems over their entire lifetime, from the production of the raw materials to the ultimate disposal of the spent battery. The three most important factors determining the total life cycle impact appear to be battery composition, battery performance, and the degree to which spent batteries are recycled after their useful lifetime. This assessment examines both rechargeable and non-rechargeable batteries, and includes lead acid, nickel cadmium, nickel metal hydride, lithium ion, carbon zinc and alkaline manganese batteries. 

Safety issues have also become more important in recent years as more active battery chemistries have been developed. In particular, the presence of corrosive electrolytes and highly ignitable or explosive battery materials under certain conditions has become an issue which the battery industry must address. At present, it appears as if improvement in the recycling rates of spent batteries will produce the most substantial decreases in the environmental and human health impacts of battery systems. 

In the case of batteries, the following stages are considered to be the major contributors to environmental and human health impacts and would be included in a life cycle analysis ... 

In a life cycle impact analysis of battery systems, regardless of composition, performance and whether or not they are rechargeable, it is clearly the final disposal of the battery which determines its major environmental and human health impact. The... 

---