Dyeing industry, development

High Pressure in the Chemical Industry. The use of high pressure in industry may be traced to early efforts to Hquefy the so-called permanent gases using a combination of pressure and low temperature. At about the same time the chemical industry was becoming involved in high pressure processes. The discovery of mauveine in 1856 led to the development of the synthetic dye industry which was well estabUshed, particularly in Germany, by the end of the century. Some of the intermediate compounds required for the production of dyes were produced, in autoclaves, at pressures of 5-8 MPa (725-1160 psi). 

In 1901, mercury cataly2ed a-sulfonation of anthraquinone was discovered, and this led to the development of the chemistry of a-substituted anthraquinone derivatives (a-amino, a-chloro, a-hydroxy, and a,a -dihydroxyanthraquinones). In the same year R. Bohn discovered indanthrone. Afterward flavanthrone, pyranthrone, and ben2anthrone, etc, were synthesi2ed, and anthraquinone vat dyes such as ben2oylaniinoanthraquinone, anthrimides, and anthrimidocarba2oles were also invented. These anthraquinone derivatives were widely used to dye cotton with excellent fastness, and formed the basis of the anthraquinone vat dye industry. 

In addition to the health risks, nitrogen dioxide in reaction to textile dyes can cause fading or yellowing of fabrics. Exposure to nitrogen dioxide can also weaken fabrics or reduce their affinity for certain dyes. Industry has devoted considerable resources to developing textiles and dyes resistant to nitrogen oxide exposure. 

From diese various estimates, die total batch cycle time t(, is used in batch reactor design to determine die productivity of die reactor. Batch reactors are used in operations dial are small and when multiproducts are required. Pilot plant trials for sales samples in a new market development are carried out in batch reactors. Use of batch reactors can be seen in pharmaceutical, fine chemicals, biochemical, and dye industries. This is because multi-product, changeable demand often requues a single unit to be used in various production campaigns. However, batch reactors are seldom employed on an industrial scale for gas phase reactions. This is due to die limited quantity produced, aldiough batch reactors can be readily employed for kinetic studies of gas phase reactions. Figure 5-4 illustrates die performance equations for batch reactors. 

This series in heterocychc chemistry is being introduced to collectively make available critically and comprehensively reviewed hterature scattered in various journals as papers and review articles. All sorts of heterocyclic compounds originating from synthesis, natural products, marine products, insects, etc. will be covered. Several heterocyclic compounds play a significant role in maintaining life. Blood constituents hemoglobin and purines, as well as pyrimidines, are constituents of nucleic acid (DNA and RNA). Several amino acids, carbohydrates, vitamins, alkaloids, antibiotics, etc. are also heterocyclic compounds that are essential for life. Heterocyclic compounds are widely used in clinical practice as drugs, but all applications of heterocyclic medicines can not be discussed in detail. In addition to such applications, heterocyclic compounds also find several applications in the plastics industry, in photography as sensitizers and developers, and the in dye industry as dyes, etc. 

Biaryl derivatives bearing reactive groups have become increasingly important in industry. Uses for this class of compounds are constantly being developed in the production of high performance polymers. Materials such as 3,3, 4,4 -biphenyl-tetracarboxylic dianhydride 1 and 4,4 -biphenol 2 are monomers employed in the manufacture of high performance polyimides or polyesters. Applications for this family of molecules have also been found both in the dye industry and in the pharmaceutical industry. 

This serendipitous discovery marked the beginning of the synthetic dyestuffs industry, based on coal tar as its main raw material, which is, incidentally, a waste product from another industry, steel manufacture. The development of mauveine was followed by efficient syntheses of natural dyes such as alizarin in 1869 (Graebe and Liebermann, 1869), and indigo in 1878 (Bayer, 1878 Heumann, 1890). The synthetic production of these dyes marked the demise of the agricultural production of these materials and the advent of a science-based, predominantly German chemical industry. The present-day fine chemicals and specialties, e.g. pharmaceuticals, industries developed largely as spin-offs of this coal tar-based dyestuffs industry. 

Indigo is the most important vat dye, dating back to ancient times and produced on an industrial scale since 1880. To replace the indigo dyes, the indanthrone (21) class of dyes was developed. Indanthrone has superior characteristics as a vat dye and became a key material for further development of anthraquinoid vat dyes. There exist a variety of anthraquinone vat dyes differing in the chromophoric system. The color-structure relationship of vat dyes have been rationalized by the Pariser-Parr-Pople molecular orbital (PPP MO) method. Some examples of commercialized anthraquinoid vat dyes are shown in Scheme 6.14... 

The foundation of the synthetic dye industry is universally attributed to William Henry Perkin on account of his discovery in 1856 of a purple dye which he originally gave the name Aniline Purple, but which was later to become known as Mauveine. Perkin was a young enthusiastic British organic chemist who was carrying out research aimed not initially at synthetic dyes but rather at developing a synthetic route to quinine, the antimalarial drug. His objective in one particular set of experiments was... 

Many brilliantly coloured and tinctorially strong basic dyes for silk and tannin-mordanted cotton were developed in the early decades of the synthetic dye industry. Most of these belonged to the acridine, azine, oxazine, triarylmethane, xanthene and related chemical classes their molecules are usually characterised by one delocalised positive charge. Thus in crystal violet (1.29) the cationic charge is shared between the three equivalent methylated p-amino nitrogen atoms. A few of these traditional basic dyes are still of some interest in the dyeing of acrylic fibres, notably as components of cheap mixture navies and blacks, but many modified basic dyes were introduced from the 1950s onwards for acrylic and modacrylic fibres, as well as for basic-dyeable variants of nylon and polyester [44] ... 

Percivall Pott made one of the first observations of a health risk related to occupational exposure. In 1775, he noted that chimney sweeps had a higher incidence of cancer of the scrotum. A century later, in 1895, it was observed that workers in the aniline dye industry were more likely to develop bladder cancer. 

Trinitrotoluene (TNT) was the most commonly used conventional military explosive during the twentieth century. Although it had been used extensively in the dye industry during late 1800s, it was not adopted for use as a military explosive until 1902, when the German army used it to replace picric acid. TNT was first used in warfare during the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905). The US Army began its use in 1912. After an economical process was developed for the nitration of toluene, TNT became the chief artillery ammunition in World War I (1914—1918). The most valuable property of TNT is that it can be safely melted and cast alone or with other explosives as a slurry. 

Historically, the dye industry has been closely linked with the development of synthetic organic chemistry. Although dyes have been extracted from natural sources for centuries, it was not until 1856 that a synthetic dye was produced commercially. The previous year, William Henry Perkin—at age 17 —oxidized... 

This result shows clearly that the developed sensor system is useful in the textile dyeing industry. 

With the increasing popularity of the continuous method of dyeing in the paper industry, new direct dyes were developed with particularly good cold-water solubility without any impairment to the substantivity. Improvements of this kind with regard to substantivity and solubility can be seen in the further development of the widely used, but only moderately soluble, cotton dye C.I. Direct Red 81, 28160 [2610-11-9] (4). 

Artificial dyes in the laboratory of the Lancashire calico-printer John Lightfoot included his own invention of aniline black he also pioneered new methods for mordanting and the use of vanadium in aniline black printing.104A general account has been given of the role of rosaniline in the development of the synthetic dye industry.105 A paper on quinones focuses chiefly on the case of anthraquinone and the synthesis of alizarin from anthracene.106... 

---