Diets Turkeys

A partial solution to this dilemma could be that a large proportion of the protein-rich foods (meat, eggs) consumed by these people came from animals that were themselves fed a C4 diet. We know that dogs typically share the same diet as humans (Katzenberg 1989 Cannon et al. 1999) and are important components of the diet in some sites (eg., Cuello Hammond 1991 van der Merwe et al, this volume). It is unlikely that all the meat consumed by Maya peoples was derived from pure C4 consumers, however, as we have evidence for at least some C3-based animal bones that are presumed to be waste from food preparation. This should a subject of future study to test for the degree of domestication (and consequent feeding on maize) of meat-supplying animals such as turkeys. 

Demerir, T., Icli, F., Uzunalimoglu, O., Kucuk, O., Diet and stomach cancer incidence. A case-control study in Turkey, Cancer, 2, 169, 1991. 

When DDT is fed to animals, even in small quantities, there is an accumulation of the compound in the tissues, particularly the fat. Telford and Guthrie (18), Orr and Mott (13), Woodward et al. (20, 21), and Laug and Fitzhugh (9) have demonstrated that DDT will accumulate in certain tissues and in milk fat of domestic and laboratory animals. Marsden and Bird (12) found that DDT was toxic to turkeys in concentrations above 0.075% of the diet, and that turkeys fed the insecticide for 7 to 8 weeks stored DDT in their fat at concentrations ranging from 4 to 8 times that in the diet. Rubin et al. (14) reported that hens fed 0.062% DDT in their diet for 12 weeks showed reduced egg production with lowered hatchability. At one half this concentration there was a detrimental effect on egg production, but hatchability was not seriously affected. The hens were killed by doses of 0.125% DDT. The insecticide was found in the eggs in quantities much smaller than in the body fat. Harris et al. (8) have shown that DDT will accumulate in considerable quantities in the fat of lambs fed DDT-treated hay. Small amounts of the insecticide were found in other tissues. 

In turkeys, natural diets with as much as 800 mg Cu/kg ration have no adverse effects on growth or survival. But purified diets are toxic to turkeys in three weeks, and purified diets that contain as little as 50 mg Cu/kg ration produce adverse effects (Waibel et al. 1964). Turkeys fed purified diets with supplemented copper show a dose-dependent increase in mortality and decrease in growth these effects are attributed to a copper-accelerated dietary deterioration (Supplee 1964). Turkey growth and survival are acceptable when fed purified diets supplemented with as much as 800 mg Cu/kg ration provided that effective levels of added antioxidant (0.02% ethoxyquin) and stabilized sources of Vitamins A and D are present (Supplee 1964). 

Kashani, A.B., H. Sarnie, R.J. Emerick, and C.W. Carlson. 1986. Effect of copper with three levels of sulfur containing amino acids in diets for turkeys. Poultry Sci. 65 1754-1759. 

Supplee, W.C. 1964. Observations on the effect of copper additions to purified turkey diets. Poultry Sci. 43 1599-1600. 

Reduction in cholinesterase activity levels of various tissues (blood, brain) is one of the earliest signs of chlorpyrifos intoxication. Cholinesterase reductions have been demonstrated in turkeys fed diets containing 50 mg chlorpyrifos/kg (estimated daily dose of 0.7 mg/kg BW) for 20 days (Schlinke et al. 1969) in chickens fed diets of 25 mg/kg (estimated daily dose of 0.94 mg/kg BW) for 20 days (Schlinke 1970) in quail (Coturnix coturnix) given a single (sublethal) esophageal... 

Turkey, Meleagris gallopavo Arsanilic acid in diet Maximum dietary concentration for turkeys less than 28 days old is 300-400 mg/kg feed (NAS 1977)... 

Phenylarsonic feed additives for disease control and improvement of weight gain in domestic poultry safe dietary levels Maximum levels in diets, in mg/kg feed, are 50-100 for arsanilic acid, 25-188 for 3-nitro-4-hydroxy-phenylarsonic acid (for chickens and turkeys, not recommended for ducks and geese), and 180-370 for others (NAS 1977)... 

Molybdenum (Mo) is present in all plant, human, and animal tissues, and is considered an essential micronutrient for most life forms (Schroeder et al. 1970 Underwood 1971 Chappell and Peterson 1976 Chappell et al. 1979 Goyer 1986). The first indication of an essential role for molybdenum in animal nutrition came in 1953 when it was discovered that a flavoprotein enzyme, xanthine oxidase, was dependent on molybdenum for its activity (Underwood 1971). It was later determined that molybdenum is essential in the diet of lambs, chicks, and turkey poults (Underwood 1971). Molybdenum compounds are now routinely added to soils, plants, and waters to achieve various enrichment or balance effects (Friberg et al. 1975 Friberg and Lener 1986). 

To obtain excreta for this study, a turkey was fed 250 grams of a basal diet containing 66 ppm robenidine hydrochloride for ten days. On the eleventh day, the turkey was dosed with 17 mg or 316.37 pCi of carbon-lA robenidine in a capsule. 

Broad bears, corrmonly called fava beans, are common to diets in Mediterranean countries (Greece, Italy, Spain, Portugal, and Turkey), in which their ingestion may cause severe hemolysis in G6PDH individuals. Clinically, the condition presents as pallor, hemoglobinuria, jaundice, and severe anemia 24-48 hours after ingestion of the beans. 

No excess of cancer was reported in two follow-up smdies of affected individuals in Turkey about 20-30 years after consumption of contaminated grain had ceased. " In mice, liver tumors were observed after exposure to HCB at 12-24mg/kg/day in the diet, but not at 6mg/kg/day. Hepatomas, hepatocellular carcinomas, bile duct adenomas, and renal cell adenomas were observed in rats after dietary administration." Liver tumors were also observed in 100% of surviving females and 16% of males after dietary administration to rats for 90 weeks. In another study, increased incidence of parathyroid adenomas and adrenal pheochromocytomas were observed in male and female rats and liver neoplastic nodules in females of the Ei generation in a two-generation feeding study. 

Turkey, Meleagris gallopavo Arsanilic acid in diet... 

Chickens fed with penta- and hexaCNs at 100 mg kg 1 in the diet produced chick edema disease [44]. Penta- and hexaCNs fed to turkeys at 20 mg kg-1 in feed for 40 days resulted in 50% mortality. At a concentration of 5 mg kg 1 feed, PCNs caused 6.5% mortality and 33% reduction in body weight [44], Histological examination revealed liver damage in exposed birds. Reproductive problems were also observed in chickens fed with a Halowax 1014 mixture at doses greater than 100 mg kg-1 bw. 

Z. Yi, E. T. Kornegay, and D. M. Denbow, Effect of microbial phytase on nitrogen and amino acid digestibility and nitrogen retention of turkey poults fed corn-soybean meal diets, Poultry Sc. 1996d, 75, 979-990. 

Toor, G. S., Peak, J. D., and Sims, J.T. (2005). Phosphorus speciation in broiler htter and turkey manure produced from modified diets. J. Environ. Qual. 34, 687-697. 

Van Cauwenberghe and Burnham (2001) and Firman and Boling (1998) reviewed various estimates of ideal proportions of AAs in broiler, layer and turkey diets based on digestible AAs and lysine as the first limiting AA. These estimates are shown in Tables 3.1-3.3. 

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