Context and objectives

The choice of which of the many preprocessing methods to apply depends on the type of data involved and the context and objectives of the problem. The importance of appropriate preprocessing caimot be overemphasized improper treatment of the data at this stage may make the rest of the analysis meaningless. 

Finally, decision puts the recognized objects into real-world context and returns a decision. 

As discussed in Chapter 4, task analysis is a very general term that encompasses a wide variety of techniques. In this context, the objective of task analysis is to provide a systematic and comprehensive description of the task structure and to give insights into how errors can arise. The structure produced by task analysis is combined with the results of the PIF analysis as part of the error prediction process. 

One can identify two major categories of uncertainty in EIA data (scientific) uncertainty inherited in input data (e.g., incomplete or irrelevant baseline information, project characteristics, the misidentification of sources of impacts, as well as secondary, and cumulative impacts) and in impact prediction based on these data (lack of scientific evidence on the nature of affected objects and impacts, the misidentification of source-pathway-receptor relationships, model errors, misuse of proxy data from the analogous contexts) and decision (societal) uncertainty resulting from, e.g., inadequate scoping of impacts, imperfection of impact evaluation (e.g., insufficient provisions for public participation), human factor in formal decision-making (e.g., subjectivity, bias, any kind of pressure on a decision-maker), lack of strategic plans and policies and possible implications of nearby developments (Demidova, 2002). 

Any object claimed to conform to the type should make it look to clients as if the invariant were always true. While the client is waiting for an operation to complete, the invariant can be broken behind the interface that the type describes but it must be restored when the operation is complete. Behind that interface are components of the design that have their own nested contexts and invariants that govern them (see Figure 3.15). 

Similarly, we could model a video store as one large-grained object—an external view or we could describe internal roles and interactions, such as the store clerk, the stockkeeper, the manager, and the video system—an internal view. We illustrate two levels of action abstraction in this chapter the object granularity will be refined later, when we define the system context and user roles. 

The idea of joint actions between stateful objects was inspired by the work done in Disco [Kurki-Suonio90]. These authors describe how joint actions provide powerful abstractions, provide the first precise semantics for state charts in the context of object modeling, and show how entire object behavior models might be refined. 

The idea of a joint action as an abstraction of many possible interaction protocols was inspired by the work of Disco [Kurki-Suonio90], We treat localized actions as a degenerate case of joint actions. Clarifying the meaning of parameters (and the corresponding rales and documentation for refinement) in the context of objects, and the treatment of use cases, we believe to be unique to our approach. Traditional use cases are described by Jacobsen in [Jacobsen92],... 

The Ph.D. thesis of D. Beringer [Beringer97] generalizes the concept of scenarios in that context, it has a good discussion of refinement (action and object refinement), good ideas about the systematic depiction of scenario types, and a brief, insightful, discussion of the need for more-effective state abstraction. 

The goal of assessing risk is to build on the knowledge of chemical reactivity hazards, to understand how the hazard properties may lead to loss scenarios in the facility context, and to determine whether existing safeguards are adequate. Therefore, the assessment of risk can be performed at any stage of facility design, development, operation, or alteration. Of course, the more that is known about the facility and its equipment and operation, the more detailed the risk assessment can be. Methods used to determine chemical reaction risks are varied, as are their objectives and data requirements. 

It would be preferable, of course, if individually and collectively, scientists were more forthcoming with explanations and justifications of their choices of values. But it is difficult to advance strong arguments against their choices if research is practiced only as the asymptotic pursuit of "pure truth" and if the choices are not misrepresented as objective and scientific. However, as it is funded and practiced currently, scientifc research deals almost exclusively with societally important study systems and therefore has practical as well as "purely scientific" objectives. Thus, it is proper to require that decision rules be adequately explained and justified in their societal context and even to look with a jaundiced eye at misrepresentations of value choices as "objective" or "scientific" for whatever reason and in any research context. 

It is time, I believe, for us to place growth in context, and to ask these important questions again. It is also time for an integration of growth (as a primary objective of the firm and the means of obtaining profitability) with other critical strategic factors that bear on the ultimate... 

A physical chemistry instructor is faced with a number of decisions the goals and objectives of the course, the level of presentation, the choice of textbook, what topics to include, the sequence of topics, the balance between fundamentals and applications, the amount of homework to assign, the use of classroom time, and so forth. Of the students in the class, only a small fraction might intend to become physical chemists. The physical chemistry instructor must make his or her decisions in this context. 

Intuitively, two groups that are isomorphic are essentially the same, although they may arise in different contexts and consist of different types of mathematical objects. For example, the unit circle in the complex plane is isomorphic as a group to the set of 2 x 2 rotation matrices. See Figure 4.1. One is a set of complex numbers, and one is a set of matrices with real entries, but if we strip away tJieir contexts and consider only how the multiplication operation works, they have identical mathematical structure. 

Data is most often transferred using available drivers. The transfer/transcription process, from the secondary repository to the permanent repository, shall be completely qualified. The qualification must include all of the appropriate documentation and supporting data. The objective of the qualification must be to ensure the accurate transfer of electronic records and their associated content, context, and structure. 

The national decisions on CII protection are put in the context of international arrangements—which might take precedence in some cases. The trans-national agreements set common criteria and objectives, and mutual verification mechanisms [18]0. The operators of the CII are responsible and accountable by the different countries and actors signing the agreement for the implementation of the protection measures. 

There are a great number of leaching tests. The experimental conditions and interpretation of results are dependent on the application context and scientific objectives, as follows ... 

Scientific discourse depends on critical review of manuscripts before publication. (Peer review—including ethical considerations—is discussed in greater detail in Chapter 6 of this volume.) The primary obligation of reviewers is to provide a rational, objective review of the science. This requires a careful reading of the manuscript and a careful preparation of the review. The review process is anonymous for most journals, but this does not mean that the reviewer has free rein to criticize. Any criticism must be logically and objectively delineated, and it should never be directed at the authors personally. Reviewers also should place the work within the context of the field is it a major contribution, minor contri-... 

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