Commercial oils

The identity of the moiety (other than glycerol) esterified to the phosphoric group determines the specific phosphoHpid compound. The three most common phosphoHpids in commercial oils are phosphatidylcholine or lecithin [8002-45-5] (3a), phosphatidylethanolamine or cephalin [4537-76-2] (3b), and phosphatidjlinositol [28154-49-7] (3c). These materials are important constituents of plant and animal membranes. The phosphoHpid content of oils varies widely. Laurie oils, such as coconut and palm kernel, contain a few hundredths of a percent. Most oils contain 0.1 to 0.5%. Com and cottonseed oils contain almost 1% whereas soybean oil can vary from 1 to 3% phosphoHpid. Some phosphoHpids, such as dipaLmitoylphosphatidylcholine (R = R = palmitic R" = choline), form bilayer stmetures known as vesicles or Hposomes. The bdayer stmeture can microencapsulate solutes and transport them through systems where they would normally be degraded. This property allows their use in dmg deHvery systems (qv) (8). 

The information given for the commercial oils represents data critically selected from pubUshed rehable sources or, in some cases, analyses performed in the authors laboratories on authentic oil samples. These data are provided as a general guide to composition only and are not meant to be exclusive of analytical results obtained by other researchers on similar oils. Where the Hterature provides ranges of composition, these have, in several cases, been included. Many variables affect the composition of essential oils. 

Table 30. Comparison of Components of the Headspace of Living Ripe Cardamom Seed and Commercial Oil ...

Component CAS Registry Number Stmcture number In living, % In picked, % In commercial oil, %... 

Table 37. Comparison of the Headspace Components of Whole and Crushed Clove Bud with a Commercial Oil ...

Pimento Berry Oil. The pimento or allspice tree, Pimenta dioca L. (syn. P. officinalis, Liadl.), a native of the West Indies and Central America, yields two essential oils of commercial importance pimento berry oil and pimenta leaf oil. The leaf oil finds some use ia perfumery for its resemblance to clove leaf and cinnamon leaf oils as a result of its high content of eugenol. Pimento berry oil is an item of commerce with extensive appHcation by the flavor industry ia food products such as meat sauces, sausages, and pickles, and moderate use ia perfumery, where it is used primarily as a modifier ia the modem spicy types of men s fragrances. The oil is steam-distilled from dried, cmshed, fully grown but unripe fmits. It is a pale yellow Hquid with a warm-spicy, sweet odor with a fresh, clean topnote, a tenacious, sweet-balsamic-spicy body, and a tea-like undertone. A comparative analysis of the headspace volatiles of ripe pimento berries and a commercial oil has been performed and differences are shown ia Table 52 (95). 

Air Pollution. Particulates and sulfur dioxide emissions from commercial oil shale operations would require proper control technology. Compliance monitoring carried out at the Unocal Parachute Creek Project for respirable particulates, oxides of nitrogen, and sulfur dioxide from 1986 to 1990 indicate a +99% reduction in sulfur emissions at the retort and shale oil upgrading faciUties. No violations for unauthorized air emissions were issued by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency during this time (62). 

Water Quality. AH commercial oil shale operations require substantial quantities of water. AH product water is treated for use and operations are permitted as zero-discharge facHities. In the Unocal operation, no accidental releases of surface water have occurred during the last four years of sustained operations from 1986 to 1990. The Unocal Parachute Creek Project compliance monitoring program of ground water, surface water, and process water streams have indicated no adverse water quaHty impacts and no violations of the Colorado Department of Health standards (62). 

As of 1995, there were only a few commercial oil shale faciUties operating in the world. These faciUties are located in countries where the economic, pohtical, and environmental requirements for commercial oil shale development are met. There are commercial oil shale faciUties in Bra2il, China, Estonia, and Israel. No commercial oil shale faciUties have existed in the United States because the costs of shale oil processing exceed those associated with conventional petroleum cmde processing. 

The commercial production of shale oil as an alternative energy source has not been economically feasible. As of 1995, all commercial oil shale operations in the world (Petrobras, Bra2il PAMA, Israel The Chinese Petroleum Corporation, Fushun and Maoming, China KivioH Oil Shale Processing Plant, Kohda-Jarve, Estonia) receive some sort of economic incentives or assistance from the countries in which they are operating. 

The number of commercial oil shale operations woddwide has decreased significandy since the decade 1975—1985 and are producing only a fraction of the wodd s hquid fuels needs. Most commercial oil shale operations have been scaled back. 

The first commercial oil-fumace process was put into operation in 1943 by the Phillips Petroleum Co. in Borger, Texas. The oil-fumace blacks rapidly displaced all other types used for the reinforcement of mbber and today account for practically all carbon black production. In the oil-fumace process heavy aromatic residual oils are atomized into a primary combustion flame where the excess oxygen in the primary zone bums a portion of the residual oil to maintain flame temperatures, and the remaining oil is thermally decomposed into carbon and hydrogen. Yields in this process are in the range of 35 to 50% based on the total carbon input. A broad range of product quaHties can be produced. 

Simmons records two samples of commercial oil to wbieb soine artifimal e.eter, or oil cooiaining a high pruportioii of esters, bad been added. These two samples barl the [ollowing characters —... 

The lollowing lalilc Ivcs the yields ol oil distilled Irotn material cut as would he done tot commercial oil distillation t... 

B. serrata is specified — apart from a likewise violet spot in the front (Rf 0.98) — by a dark ochre-greenish spot (Rf 0.40) of cembrenol (compound 6). The commercial oils on lane 4 to lane 6 have their origin in B. serrata resins spiked with... 

A field test was conducted by spraying a commercial oil spill-dispersant (Corexit 9527) from aircraft [696]. Test objectives were to determine the efficiency of delivering the dispersant to a selected target using a large aircraft and to compare various measurement systems for droplet size and spray pattern distribution. The results indicated that aerial flights up to 46 m can produce droplet sizes and swath widths that would be operationally effective for an oil spill. 

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