Batteries classification

Among rechargeable batteries commercially available today (Table 1), only the lead/acid (Pb-A) and Ni-Fe systems can be considered as potential EV power plants because of the cost and scarcity of materials used in other batteries. The performance of the Pb-A and Ni-Fe systems is, however, inherently limited by their low-energy 

Automotive SLI traction (specialized vehicles) emergency power Traction and lighting of trains (predominantly in USSR) Small-size portable power Aerospace applications requiring nonmagnetic components Military aerospace 

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To provide ultra-high reliability and independent operational control, two thermal battery types were developed and refined for optimum and reliable performance. One thermal battery was to be used for the EHP application, which requires a square wave current pulse load for its entire operating life. The second thermal battery was designed to provide power to the DC emergency bus bar and was required to meet a constant power output for its entire operating life. The operating life requirement was the same for both thermal batteries. Both of these thermal batteries have met the vibration, shock, and all other applicable military specifications. Specific structural and critical performance parameters will be described in Section 7.8 on thermal battery classification. Ordinance and nonordinance applications wiU be identified with an emphasis on performance capabihties and limitations. No other battery can outperform the LiAlFeSj thermal battery... 

Batteries design can be compared in view of the three main components the electrode A, the electrolyte, and the electrode B. A possible battery classification can be deduced from the nature of these components liquid, soft or solid. This is the figure of the Rubik s cube shown in Fig. 1.6 [13]. All these media can be liquid, plastic (soft) or solid. This is crucial because certain interfaces are difficult to handle. Common batteries have a solid-liquid-solid configuration the liquid— solid-liquid system corresponds to the Na-S battery using p-alumina as the electrolyte, which permits relatively easy manufacture. On the other side, the aU-soUd... 

In addition to battery limits investment, off-site investment is required. This includes all structures, equipment, and services that do not enter directly into the chemical process. Within this broad category there are two major classifications, namely, utilities and service facilities. 

Battery breaking technologies use wet classification to separate the components of cmshed batteries. Before cmshing, the sulfuric acid is drained from the batteries. The sulfuric acid is collected and stored for use at a later stage in the process, or it may be upgraded by a solvent extraction process for reuse in battery acid. 

Fig. 14. Outside battery limit (OSBL) equipment spacing. Minimum spacing for off-site equipment is in meters. Classifications of tankage are Class 1 high ha2ard, flash point below 38°C Class 2 low ha2ard, flash point above 38°C. NFPA = National Fine Protection Association. Safety standards are calculated...

An overview of the most important quaternary ammonium salts tested for possible applicability in zinc-bromine batteries is presented in Table 2. A rough classification has been applied according to the substance classes of the substituents attached to the nitrogen. 

The classification into primary and storage batteries is not rigorous since under certain conditions (in the laboratory) a primary battery may be recharged, whereas storage batteries are sometimes discarded after a single use. 

Although most Type I pyrethroids produce the T-syndrome and most Type II pyrethroids produce the CS-syndrome, there are exceptions to this classification. Fenpropathrin, a Type II pyrethroid, and permethrin, a Type I pyrethroid, produce mixed intoxication syndromes depending on the study and animal examined. Lastly, the signs of intoxication may not be independent of the routes of administration [1]. As reported recently, the results of a functional observational battery study of 12 pyrethroids in rats following acute oral exposure did not correlate well with the signs of intoxication following intravenous dosing [19]. 

Under the Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA), the U.S. EPA evaluates the potential for people to be exposed to more than one pesticide at a time from a group of chemicals with an identified common mechanism of toxicity. As part of the examinations, to clarify whether some or all of the pyrethroids share a common mechanism of toxicity, a comparative FOB (functional observational battery) studies with 12 pyrethroids were carried out under standardized conditions [15]. The FOB was evaluated at peak effect time following oral administration of non-lethal doses of pyrethroids to rats using com oil as vehicle. Four principal components were observed in the FOB data [22], Two of these components described behaviors associated with CS syndrome (lower body temperature, excessive salivation, impaired mobility) and the others described behaviors associated with the T syndrome (elevated body temperature, tremor myoclonus). From the analysis, pyrethroids can be divided into two main groups (Type I T syndrome and Type II CS syndrome) and a third group (Mixed Type) that did not induce a clear typical response. Five other pyrethroids were also classified by an FOB study conducted in the same manner [16]. The results of these classifications are shown in Table 1. The FOB results for all non-cyano pyrethroids were classified as T syndrome, and the results of four ot-cyano pyrethroids were classified as CS syndrome however, three of the ot-cyano pyrethroids, esfenvalerate, cyphenothrin, and fenpropathrin, were classified as Mixed Type. 

Tsuji R The classification of 7 pyrethroids based on the data of comparative Functional observation battery study in rats (in preparation)... 

Battery limit, 79 493 Battery-limits plants, 9 528 Battery recycling, 74 757 Battery separator, product design, 5 759 Battledress overgarment (BDO), 5 834 Bauer—McNett (BMN) classification, asbestos, 3 310 Baumann, E., 25 628 Baume scale, 23 759 Bauxite(s), 2 285, 345t... 

Classification of Estimates There are two broad classes of estimates grass roots and battery limits. Grass-roots estimates include the entire facility, starting with site preparation, buildings and structures, processing equipment, utilities, services, storage facilities, raihoad yards, docks, and plant roads. A battery-limits estimate is one in which an imaginary boundary is drawn around the proposed facihty to be estimated. It is assumed that all materials, utilities, and services are available in the quality and quantity required to manufacture a product. Only costs within the boundary are estimated. 

The industry responsible for the largest amount of WMPCs produced in 2001 was the alkalies and chlorine industry (SIC code 2812). (The Standard Industrial Classification [SIC] code is a system for categorizing all types of industries that operate in the United States.) The next four industries, in terms of WMPCs produced in 2001, were blast furnaces and steel mills (SIC code 3312), primary nonferrous metals (SIC code 3339), industrial inorganic chemicals (SIC code 2819), and storage batteries (SIC code 3691). Lead is an important by-product in all of these operations, accounting for the very large... 

The above metals are used in many industrial processes. Cadmium, for instance, is plated onto fabricated metal parts to provide corrosion resistance, lubricity and other desirable properties it is used in rechargeable batteries, television and fluorescent light phosphors, inorganic coloring agents for paint, plastic and printing ink, and as a catalyst. Applications of the metals listed above are detailed in Table 2-1, categorized by Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) codes. These industries are discussed further in Section 4.0. 

Table 6. Point allocation scheme for sample ranking and hazard classification based on a toxicity test core battery [HAS 1].

Hazard potential for each effluent was calculated using a mathematical formula (the PEEP index) proposed by Costan et al. (1993). This formula integrates the ecotoxic responses of the battery of tests before and after a biodegradation step. Toxicity test endpoint responses are first transformed to toxic units. The product of effluent toxicity and effluent flow (m3/h) gives the toxic loading value. The log 10 value of an effluent s toxic loading corresponds to its PEEP index. In order to rank the effluents a toxicity classification scale is generated (Tab. 11). 

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