Baume scale

Twaddell Hydrometer. This hydrometer, which is used only for liquids heavier than water, has a scale such that when the reading is multiplied by 5 and added to 1000 the resulting number is the specific gravity with reference to water as 1000. To convert specific gravity at 60°/60°F to Twaddell degrees, take the decimal portion of the specific gravity value and multiply it by 200 thus a specific gravity of 1.032 = 0.032 X 200 = 6.4° Tw. See also special table for conversion to density and Baume scale. 

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Baume hydrometer scale phys chem A calibration scale for liquids that is reducible to specific gravity by the following formulas for liquids heavier than water, specific gravity = H5 a- — n) at 60°F for liquids lighter than water, specific gravity = 140 a- (130 + n) at 60°F n is the reading on the Baume scale, in degrees Baume Baume is abbreviated Be. bo ma hT dram-ad-ar, skal )... 

However, a considerable number of hydrometers calibrated according to the Baume scale were found at an early period to be in error by a consistent amount, and this led to the adoption of the equation ... 

The Baume scale is still used in the industry where... 

Whether the desired product is a corn sugar or a com simp, the elements of processing are identical. The starch is hydrolyzed to the desired degree controlled by the D.E., the acid is neutralized with- sodium carbonate, the insoluble nonstarch impurities are mechanically removed, the soluble impurities are reduced by adsorption on a refining agent, and the resulting clarified and refined hydrolyzate is concentrated to the desired percentage of solids, usually measured with a hydrometer on the Baum scale. 

Sulfuric acid is a dense, colorless liquid at room temperature. In the past, its concentration was described as a function of its specific gravity in degrees Baume (°B6). In the United States, the Baum scale is calculated using the following formula ... 

Cartier s Hydrometer. This hydrometer shows a reading of 22° when immersed in a solution having a density of 22° Baume but the scale divisions are smaller than on the Baume hydrometer in the ratio of 16 Cartier to 15 Baume. 

Sprayometer (Parrot and Stewart). This hydrometer which is used in determining the density of lime sulfur solutions has two scales one scale is graduated from 0° to 38° Baume and the other scale is from 1.000 to 1.350 specific gravity. 

This table gives the relation between density (c.g.s.) and degrees on the Baume and Twaddell scales. The Twaddell scale is never used for densities less than unity. See also Sec. 2.1.2.1, Hydrometers. 

Density Degrees Baume (NIST scale) Degrees Baume (A.P.I.t scale)... 

For a maximum value for the scaled pressure p = 0.1, a reduction in Vj of 10% was calculated when the co-volume parameter was applied to a sphere breaking in half. In general, fragment velocity is lower than that calculated in the ideal-gas case. Baum (1987) recommends that energy E be determined from thermodynamic data (see Section 6.3.2.3) for the gas in question. 

In Figure 6.35, lines have been added for a sphere bursting into 2 or 100 pieces for pi/po = 50 and 10, in accordance with Figure 6.33. Obviously, the simple relations proposed by Brode (1959) and Baum (1984) predict the highest velocity. Differences between models become significant for small values of scaled energy E, in the following equation ... 

In most industrial applications, scaled energy will be between 0.1 and 0.4 (Baum 1984), so under normal conditions, few fragments are expected, and Figure 6.33 can be applied. However, if an operation or process is not under control and pressure rises dramatically, higher scaled-energy values can be reached. 

In the relationships proposed by Brode (1959) and in Figure 6.33, velocity has no upper limit, although Figure 6.33 is approximately bounded by scaled pressures of 0.05 and 0.2 (scaled energies of approximately 0.1 and 0.7). Baum (1984) states, however, that there is an upper limit to velocity, as follows The maximum velocity... 

For lower scaled pressures, velocity can be calculated with the equation proposed by Baum (1987) which produces disintegration of both cylindrical and spherical vessels into multiple fragments (Vj = O.SSoo ). Such a result can also be obtained by use of Figure 6.33. However, actual experience is that ruptures rarely... 

Baum s equation (Vj = O.SSoq ) can be compared with curves in Figure 6.33 as F equals n times the scaled pressure, in which /> = 3 for spheres and n = 2 for cylinders (end caps neglected). For spheres, Baum s equation gives higher velocities than the Baker et al. model (1983), but for cylinders, this equation gives lower velocities. 

Baum (1984) states that the scaled energy, which is determined by ... 

Moore s equation was derived from fragments accelerated from high explosives packed in a casing. Baum (1984) showed, in comparing different models, that the Moore equation tends to follow the theoretical upper-velocity limit for high scaled energies. 

For folded proteins, relaxation data are commonly interpreted within the framework of the model-free formalism, in which the dynamics are described by an overall rotational correlation time rm, an internal correlation time xe, and an order parameter. S 2 describing the amplitude of the internal motions (Lipari and Szabo, 1982a,b). Model-free analysis is popular because it describes molecular motions in terms of a set of intuitive physical parameters. However, the underlying assumptions of model-free analysis—that the molecule tumbles with a single isotropic correlation time and that internal motions are very much faster than overall tumbling—are of questionable validity for unfolded or partly folded proteins. Nevertheless, qualitative insights into the dynamics of unfolded states can be obtained by model-free analysis (Alexandrescu and Shortle, 1994 Buck etal., 1996 Farrow etal., 1995a). An extension of the model-free analysis to incorporate a spectral density function that assumes a distribution of correlation times on the nanosecond time scale has recently been reported (Buevich et al., 2001 Buevich and Baum, 1999) and better fits the experimental 15N relaxation data for an unfolded protein than does the conventional model-free approach. 

Tables have been published relating Baume, Brix and specific gravity. As density is temperature dependent it is necessary to either bring the syrup to a fixed temperature or, as is more common in practice, to use temperature correction factors or tables. The relationship between density and concentration is slightly different for invert sugar or glucose syrups. The Brix scale is sometimes applied to products that are not sucrose syrups, such as concentrated fruit juice. Recipes are certainly in use that state boil to x Brix . In practice these instructions mean that the material should give the same reading as a sugar syrup of that concentration. As often happens in confectionery these practices have been proved to work empirically.

Baume gravity the specific gravity of liqnids expressed as degrees on the Baume (°B or °Be) scale. For liquids lighter than water ... 

Antoine Baum , 1728-1804. French pharmacist and chemist. Author of a Chymie expenmentale et raisonnee in which he discussed chemical apparatus, chemical affinity, fire, air, earth, water, sulfur, gypsum, alum, clay, niter, gunpowder, borax, arsenic, glass, porcelain, and the common acids, alkalies, metals, and ores used m 1773. His hydrometer scale is still used. He was one of the first chemists to investigate platinum... 

Users of the Baum method found that the scale generally read 66 when llie float was submerged in oil of vitriol. Thus, early manufacturers of hydrometers calibrated the instruments by this method. There were variations in the Baumd scale, however, because of lack of standardization in hydrometer calibration. Consequently, in 1904, the National Bureau of Standards made a careful survey and finally adopted the scales previously given for light and for heavy liquids. 

The modulus of 145 is the ratio of the total volume displaced in water by the hydrometer and the volume displaced by the unit scale length of the hydrometer stem. Corn syrups are commercially available with Baume values of 42,43 and 44. 

The difference between RANS and LES is depicted in Figure 20.1, which shows the temperature fields of a pool fire flame. While the RANS result shows smooth variations and looks like a laminar flame, the LES result clearly illustrates the large-scale eddies. Both results are the correct solutions of the corresponding equations. However, the time accuracy of LES is also essential for the quantitative accuracy of the buoyancy-driven flows. As Rehm and Baum have shown [10], the dynamic motions or eddies are responsible for most of the air entrainment into the fire plumes. Because these motions cannot be captured by RANS, LES is usually better suited for fire-driven flow. LES typically requires a finer spatial resolution than RANS. Examples of RANS-based fire CFD models are JASMINE, KAMELEON [11], SMARTFIRE [12], SOFIE [13], ISIS [14], and ISIS-3D [15]. Examples of LES models are the FDS [4,5] and SMAFS [16], developed at Lund University. Fire simulations using LES have also been performed by Cheung et al. [17] and Gao et al. [18],... 

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