Anatomy and physiology

Knowledge of the anatomy of the blood supply of the brain is often helpful in understanding the etiology and mechanisms of TIA and stroke, which enable accurate targeting of acute treatment and secondary prevention. An awareness of the mechanisms underpinning the regulation of cerebral blood flow allows the clinician to identify patients at risk of stroke and assess the possible effects of treatments. 

The brain makes up only 2% of the total body weight, but when the body is at rest, it receives 20% of the cardiac output and consumes about 20% of the total inspired oxygen. The anterior two-thirds of the brain is supplied by the two internal carotid arteries, and the posterior third of the brain by the two vertebral arteries (Fig. 4.1). These four arteries anastomose at the base of the brain to form the circle of Willis (Fig. 4.2). 

The detailed anatomy of the cerebral circulation is well described by Sheldon (1981). There is individual variation in arterial anatomy and thus in the territories of supply of the various major arteries, which can be asymmetrical and may change over time, depending on obstruction to vessel flow and the availability of functional collaterals (van der Zwan et al. 1992) (Fig. 4.3). Developmental anomalies of the major cerebral vessels include  

The internal carotid artery starts as the carotid sinus at the bifurcation of the common carotid artery at the level of the thyroid cartilage. It runs up the neck, without any branches, to the base of the skull where it passes through the foramen lacerum to enter the carotid canal of the petrous bone. It then runs through the cavernous sinus in an S-shaped curve (the carotid siphon) pierces the dura and exits just medial to the anterior clinoid process. It then bifurcates into the anterior cerebral artery and the larger middle cerebral artery. 

The external carotid artery also starts at the bifurcation. Branches supply the jaw, face, scalp, neck and meninges via the superficial temporal, facial and occipital arteries. 

This section provides a review of the anatomy and physiology of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) accompanied by a brief description of some of the important drugs which modify its actions. A summary of the interaction between the immune system and the ANS is also included. An extensive discussion of the anatomy and physiology of the ANS can be found in the Primer on the Autonomic Nervous System (Robertson, 2004). Detailed information on the pharmacology of the ANS can be found in Goodman Gilman s The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics (Brunton et al., 2006). 

The ANS, a major subdivision of the peripheral nervous system, functions as a regulator of tissues throughout the body. The control of these tissues is the responsibility one or both of the two divisions of the ANS, the parasympathetic nervous system and the sympathetic nervous system including the 

OigaiESystein Sympatlietic division Parasympa thebe division 

ACh acts on cholinergic receptors (classified muscarinic or nicotinic) w hereas NE acts on adrenergic receptors (classified a or p). Subtypes of muscarinic (M ), nicotinic (Nj ,m) (ttj j) and (pj 3) receptors exist as well. 

Organ/System Sympadietic division Parasympathetic division  

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Despite recent developments, effectiveness of chemotherapy is still rather limited for most types of cancer, including tumors of the colon, lung, kidney, pancreas, and liver. Why some cancers respond better than others may be explained by factors relating to the anatomy and physiology of the cancer-ridden organ or... 

Rgure42-2. Activity of angiotensinogen in relation to increased blood pressure. (Adapted from Scanlon Sanders [1999]. Essentials of anatomy and physiology [3rd ed., p. 295], Philadelphia FA Davis.)... 

Marieb NE (2007) Human anatomy and physiology, 7th edn. Pearson/Benjamin Cummings, San Erandsco... 

This section considers, in three separate chapters, the anatomy and physiology of bacteria, fungi and yeasts, and viruses, together with a survey of the characters of individual members of these groups likely to be of importance to the applied field covered by this book. Additional information is provided about more rapid methods for detecting bacteria. The final chapter in this section (Chapter 4) considers the principles of microbial pathogenicity and epidemiology. 

Moore, RY and Bloom, FE (1978) Central catecholamine neuron systems, anatomy and physiology of the dopamine system. Ann. Rev. Neurosci. 1 129-169. 

Delmon, B. "Recent Approaches To The Anatomy and Physiology of Cobalt Molybdenum Hydrodesulfurization Catalysts" in preprints of Third International Conference on the Chemistry and Uses of Molybdenum, Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1979 (Climax Molybdenum Company). 

Negus V.E. (1958). Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of the Nose and Para-Nasal Sinuses. Oliver Boyd, Edinburgh, p. 402. 

Dysmenorrhea is commonly defined as crampy pelvic pain occurring with or just prior to menses. Primary dysmenorrhea implies pain in the setting of normal pelvic anatomy and physiology, whereas secondary dysmenorrhea is associated with underlying pelvic pathology.17... 

There are many similarities and differences in the anatomy and physiology of mammals, birds, and humans. It is outside the scope of this chapter to elaborate on the individual differences. For a brief review, refer to the third edition of Modern Pharmaceutics [9] and the second edition of Development and Formulation of Veterinary Dosage Forms [10]. 

Maybe. "Convinced of immortality, the sages of antiquity viewed the human body not as the man, but the house of the man. This book draws on material gathered from dozens of sources written over the centuries. The thought-provoking essays in this book show how the human body reveals the laws and principles operating throughout the universe. The 18 chapters are illustrated with plates from rare and early works on Rosicrucianism, the Hermetic sciences, the cabala, and more traditional texts on anatomy and physiology"... 

Moore, R. Y. Bloom, F. E. (1979). Central catecholamine neuron systems anatomy and physiology of the norepinephrine and epinephrine systems. A. Rev. Neurosci. 2, 113-68. 

Freeman A. (2006). Anatomy and Physiology of the Mesothalamic Dopamine System. 

Anatomy and physiology of digestive tracts of monogastric livestock... 

Cardiovascular anatomy and physiology Ventricular performance Electrophysiology Coronary artery distribution Human skin... 

If the general hypothesis developed in the first chapters of this book is valid, we would presume that each human individual has, for basic genetic reasons, a distinctive pattern with respect to his various endocrine glands and their interrelationships. The existence of such patterns involving the gross and microscopic anatomy and physiology of each gland can hardly be questioned. How different individual patterns may be is another question it has often been assumed that in normal individuals these differences are relatively inconsequential. The material to be presented in this chapter has to do with the validity of this assumption. 

O Driscoll CM (1992) Anatomy and Physiology of the Lymphatics. In WN Charman, VJ Stella (Eds.), Lymphatic Transport of Drugs. Boca Raton, CRC Press. 

F. M. Baroody. Nasal and paranasal sinus anatomy and physiology. Clin Allergy Immunol 19 1-21 (2007). 

Tortora, G. J., Introduction to the Human Body the Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology, 3rd ed., pp. 411 18, Harper Collins College Publishers, New York, 1994. 

Haeberlin, B., and Friend, D.R., Anatomy and physiology of the gastrointestinal tract. In Oral Colon-Specific Drug Delivery (D.R. Friend, ed.), CRC Press, Boca Raton, 1992, pp. 1-43. 

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