Alternatives to incineration

Public opposition to incineration has come from several citizens groups, states, and environmental organizations. They have raised concerns about incineration because of questions about adverse health effects, such as birth defects, respiratory diseases, neurological damage, and cancer. The linkage between these health problems and incineration is still being researched and debated. For example, dioxins and furans have been linked to cancer and other long-term health problems. 

The National Research Council (NRC) report, Recommendations for the Disposal of Chemical Agents and Munitions, advocates concurrent development (beginning operations before completing development, 

It is unlikely that any of these technologies will reach maturity in time to destroy the entire U.S. chemical weapons stockpile by the congressionally mandated deadline of December 31, 2004. 

The fiscal year 1993 Defense Authorization Act (P.L. 102-484) requires that the Department of Defense destroy the U.S. stockpile of chemical weapons and agents by December 31, 2004. Previous legislation had established earlier deadlines. In January 1993, the United States signed 

If the treaty is ratified by the U.S. Senate, the deadline for destroying the stockpile could be as early as 2005. The Chemical Weapons Convention enters into force 180 days after the 65th signatory country has ratified the treaty. Signatory countries will have 10 years from the date the treaty enters into force to comply. The treaty also includes a provision for a 5-year extension, which would extend the deadline to about 2010. Leaders of the Russian Federation have indicated they will ask for the extension. 

---

Overview The U.S. Air Force has classified material that must be destroyed. Disintegrators provide an alternative to incineration for the destruction of classified materials. Disintegrators are able to handle the destruction of paper, thick documents, video cassettes, microfilm or reels, CD-ROMs, microfiche, and diskettes. Disintegrators are available with a capacity of 50 to over 7500 lbs. per hour. Disintegrators work in the following way ... 

Electrochemical destruction of organics can be an economically viable alternative to incineration, carbon beds, bioremediation, deep well disposal and other methods as destruction to very low acceptable levels is possible [227a], Electrochemical techniques are in fact superior to incineration or deep well disposal as it is a final solution and not a transfer of a toxic material from one environment to another, e.g. to the groundwater or the atmosphere [285], Common destruction pathways include both direct and indirect electrolysis. Many electrochemical degradation pathways remain unclear and may be a mixture of direct and indirect processes depending on the pollutant and its intermediates [84,285a]. 

The low temperature/low pressure operating process developed by AEA (Dounray, Scotland), known as Silver bullet , which allows one to process a wide range of waste types and compositions, cf. Table 24, makes it an attractive alternative to incineration for the more toxic and troublesome types of industrial organic wastes. 

Hickman RG, Farmer JC, Chiba Z, Mediated electrochemical oxidation techniques as an alternative to incineration in Ref [45a]... 

Chiba, Z., B. Schumacher, P. Lewis, and L. Murguia. 1995. Mediated Electrochemical Oxidation as an Alternative to Incineration for Mixed Wastes, UCRL-JC-119133, February. Livermore, Calif. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. 

Whether the reuse of the metals obtained from incineration as a preservative, or some form of permanent immobilization is preferable requires careful thought. Low-temperature pyrolysis has been suggested as an alternative to incineration, since this would be expected to lead to lower losses of metals (Helsen elal., 1998). 

Mediated electrochemical oxidation (MEO) is an ex situ treatment technology that uses electricity, acid, and a metal catalyst to destroy organic wastes at low temperatures and pressures. The proprietary CerOx Corporation MEO configuration uses cerium metal as a catalyst to oxidize organic waste into carbon dioxide and water. The process occurs in an acidic solution, typically nitric acid. The first step involves the generation of an oxidant at the anode, followed by the reduction of water or another chemical species at the cathode. This technology serves as a nonthermal alternative to incineration. 

Under joint sponsorship by the U. S. Army Research, Development and Engineering Center (ARDEC) and the U. S. Department of Energy (DOE), a bench-scale transpiring wall reactor was developed by Sandia National Laboratories, FWDC, and GenCorp Aerojet. The reactor, which uses SCWO, was designed to treat military and other liquid wastes. A commercial application of the technology is in use to destroy munitions, colored smokes, and dyes. SWCO may also provide a viable alternative to incineration for the destruction of chemical weapons. 

During a field test of SABRE technology conducted at the DOD s Iowa Army Ammunition Plant, the U.S. Army Environmental Center evaluated the performance and cost of biotreatment as an alternative to incineration of munitions. Cost projections for this demonstration estimate a unit cost of approximately 300 to 350/yd (D18531T, p. 262). 

Thermal desorption treatment is generally considered to be an alternative to incineration. Thermal desorption operates at much lower temperatures than incineration and keeps the heating systems independent of the wastes, which minimizes off-gas production. The technology can be used as a waste minimization process, isolating and concentrating waste constituents, or as a product recovery process. Thermal desorption can also be used to separate contaminants in mixed waste streams by removing volatile constituents. 

Superheated and supercritical water are used in several applications. Supercritical water is most often used in the destruction of organic wastes, including some chemical warfare agents, as an alternative to incineration (Katritzky et al., 1996 Sherman et al., 1998). Recent reports describe the use of both forms as a solvent and as a reactant in synthetic chemistry (Katritzky et al., 1996 An et al., 1997). Some of the reactions investigated include metal-mediated alkyne cyclizations, Pd-catalyzed al-kene arylations, aldol reactions, the Fischer indole synthesis, and hydrolysis reactions. Waterborne coatings and the destruction of wastes in supercritical water are fully... 

Craig, H. Sisk, W. (1994). The composting alternative to incineration of explosives contaminated soils. Tech Trends. EPA Publication 542-N-94-008. November 1994-... 

Neutralization-based technologies (alternatives to incineration) are being installed at the chemical stockpile site in Newport, Indiana, where bulk-only VX nerve agent is stored, and in Aberdeen, Maryland, where bulk-only mustard agent is stored. The selection of technologies for the last two sites, at Pueblo, Colorado, and Blue Grass, Kentucky, is under way. 

The ACW II Committee advises the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) on its ACWA Program. Since 1997, the ACW II Committee and its predecessor (the ACW I Committee) have followed the development of several alternative (to incineration) technologies for the demilitarization of assembled chemical weapons. In parallel with this modified baseline process report, the ACW II Committee is preparing a report to evaluate the two ACWA technologies being considered for Pueblo. 

Gray, L.W., Adamson, M.G.A., Hickman, R.G., Farmer, J.C., Chiba, Z., Gregg, D.W., and Wang, F.T., Aqueous phase oxidation techniques as an alternative to incineration, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, UCRL-JC-108867, Albuquerque, NM, 1992. 

Blaney, C.A., Li, L., Gloyna, E.F., and Hossain, F., Supercritical water oxidation of pulp and paper mill sludge as an alternative to incineration, in Innovations in Supercritical Fluids, Hutchenson, K.W. and Foster, N.R., Eds., ACS Symp. Ser. 

Washington, D.C. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. OTA (Office of Technology Assessment). 1992. Disposal of Chemical Weapons An Analysis of Alternatives to Incineration. Washington, D.C. Government Printing Office. 

Civilian applications are numerous, but most funding of SCWO technology has stemmed from the military s need to find a safe and effective alternative to incineration of their wastes, as well as the need to clean up mixed wastes (radioactive and hazardous organic materials) at DOE weapons facilities. For better utilization of SCWO for its application to a wide range of waste types, a better fundamental understanding of reaction media, including reaction rates, reaction mechanisms, and phase behavior of multicomponent systems is required. Such an understanding would help optimize the process conditions to minimize reactor corrosion and salt... 

Wilhelmi AR, Knopp PV. 1979. Wet air oxidation - an alternative to incineration. Chem Eng Prog 75 46-52. 

Application of PTGL Processes as an Alternative to Incineration for Treatment of MR. As stated above, as a first stage, various PTGL process systems offer the possibility of decreasing several pollution problems caused in the incineration process. 

Of importance to note was the considerable level of public involvement in the extensive tesbng and evaluation of potential technologies as alternatives to incineration for this application, and the strong public support demonstrated for SCWO. The program is currently in the design stage, with the expected completion date for the plant projected for 2011. 

The key public concern about plasma arc processes for the destruction of non-stockpile CWM in the United States centers on whether plasma arc offers a true alternative to incineration. Depending on the type of plasma gas used and the configuration of secondary oxidation zones, quench, and scrubber processes, plasma arc systems may produce gas volumes and reaction products that are quite similar to or quite different from those associated with incinerators. 

A noteworthy indication of the variance in public attitudes toward plasma arc is that in one case, after careful consideration, the Assembled Chemical Weapons Assessment program Dialogue Group accepted plasma arc as a valid alternative to incineration. However, in contrast with this, a spokesperson for the Non-Stockpile Chemical Weapons Citizens Coalition characterized plasma arc as a synonym for incineration and expressed concern that NSCMP was prematurely embracing the technology. As with incineration, the degree of public concern about plasma arc may vary with specific implementation and specific location (NRC, 2002). 

The U.S. Army Environmental Center (USAEQ recently completed a demonstration of windrow composting of explosives-contaminated sods at Umatilla Depot Activity (UMDA) in Hermiston, Oregon. This demonstration represented the second phase of field studies conducted at UMDA, and was part of an ongoing effort to develop a composting system which can provide an economical and effective alternative to incineration for the treatment of explosives-contaminated soils and sediments. 

In 1997, Congress passed legislation that requires the Army to pursue alternatives to incineration for the destruction of assembled chemical weapons at two of the U.S. sites where chemical weapons have been stockpiled the PCD, in Pueblo, Colorado, and... 

---