Adversarial system

English, Irish and Scottish law follow an adversary system, in which each side develops its cases and answers the contentions of the other. The judge s functions are to ensure that the correct procedures are followed, to clarify ambiguities, and to decide the issue. He may question, but he should not come down into the arena and enter into argument. 

Science exists to uncover a deeper understanding of the universe, guided by the principles of the scientific method. The tools used are experimentation and observation. Courts exist to settle disputes between individuals and the state (criminal law) or among individuals or entities (civil law). Courts are guided by the law, precedent, and function using an adversarial system. It would be mistaken to assume that the courts use a model similar to the scientific method. It would be equally mistaken to assume that science works on the basis of argument. There are elements of all in both systems, but to the forensic chemist, the differences are as important as the similarities (Figure 1.1). 

Both science and the courts are tasked with deriving information from evidence pertinent to the issue at hand. Science employs the scientific method to do so, whereas the courts employ the adversarial system, in which two opposing parties present arguments before the trier of fact. Scientific evidence and testimony may support or refute either argument. The relative... 

Adversarial system Cham of custody Circumstantial evidence Civil law Classifications... 

Compare and contrast the adversarial system and the scientific method. List the strengths and weaknesses of both in the context of criminal and civil law. 

Adversarial system A system in which opposing arguments are presented to the party that makes the decision (trier of fact). 

Vulnerability is the manifestation of the inherent states of the system (e.g., physical, technical, organizational, social, cultural) that can be exploited by an adversary to adversely affect (cause harm or damage to) that system. 

Architecture. Many common practices negatively affect SCADA security. For example, while it is convenient to use SCADA capabilities for other purposes such as fire and security systems, these practices create single points of failure. Also, the connection of SCADA networks to other automation systems and business networks introduces multiple entry points for potential adversaries. 

Ideally, in a perfect world, all chemical facilities would be secured in a layered fashion (aka the barrier approach). Layered security systems are vital. Using the protection in-depth principle, requiring that an adversary defeat several protective barriers or security layers to accomplish its goal, chemical industry infrastructure can be made more secure. Protection in depth is a term commonly used by the military to describe security measures that reinforce one another, masking the defense mechanisms from the view of intruders, and allowing the defender time to respond to intrusion or attack. 

For example, as depicted in figure 9.1, an effective security layering approach requires that an adversary penetrate multiple, separate barriers to gain entry to a critical target at a chemical industry facility. As shown in figure 9.1, protection in depth (multiple layers of security) helps to ensure that the security system remains effective in the event of a failure or an intruder bypassing a single layer of security. 

But it would seem that, particularly when one has to allow for malicious attacks by intelligent adversaries on a system s or an infrastructure s protective structuring, there are at least in principle some fundamental limitations as to what can be achieved solely by automated defenses—... 

Bioterrorism Act of 2003 While not directly related to water quality regulations, the security and vulnerability of community drinking water systems were addressed in the Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act of 2002 (Bioterrorism Act). The vulnerability assessments were intended to examine a facility s ability to defend against adversarial actions that might substantially disrupt the ability of a water system to provide a safe and reliable supply of drinking water. 

To survey previous results we should fix our notation. Let N be the total number of users in the system let r be the size of the revoked set 71. Another important parameter that is often considered is t, the upper bound on the size of the coalition an adversary can assemble. The algorithms in this paper do not require such a bound and we can think oft = r on the other hand some previously proposed schemes depend on t but are independent of r. The Broadcast Encryption method of [23] is one such scheme which allows the removal of any number of users as long as at most t of them collude. There the message length is 0 t log t), a user must store a number of keys that is logarithmic in t and the amount of work required by the user is 0 r/t) decryptions. 

The committee s assessment derives from the fact that the risk from asymmetric, or at least unconventional, attacks has increased. A determined adversary with even a small quantity of chemical or biological agent and a well-executed attack plan could produce significant consequences if supply chains, civilian support operations, and/or deployment schedules were disrupted. For example, the contamination of a ship in a foreign port raises the question as to how a captain should best utilize the non-medical science and technology at his disposal in response to an attack in which no sensor system allowed the avoidance of exposure. The extension of that question for the Non-Medical Science and Tech-... 

Vulnerability is a measure of the likelihood of adversary success (Las) in causing the desired consequences (mathematical complement of protection system effectiveness). Vulnerability, or Las, is an estimate of the likelihood that the existing security countermeasures will be overcome by the attempted attack. This factor represents a qualitative surrogate for the quantitative conditional probability of success used in some government risk assessment models (U.S. Department of Justice, 2002). There are numerous subfactors involved in the analysis of Las, so this factor may be difficult to quantify. Alternatively, the TSVA team can assess the vulnerabilities and existing countermeasures to determine the defined adversary s ability to succeed. 

First, Nixon reiterated the theme of how the international system had moved beyond the rigid bipolar structure of the Cold War, and how the United States had to adapt its foreign policy to these changes. The fluidity of [this] new era of multilateral diplomacy offered opportunities for creative diplomacy. Second, Nixon tried to situate the coming breakthrough within the development of the U.S. role as world peacemaker the purpose was to work with other nations to build an enduring structure of peace. In pursuing this task, Nixon s new approach encompassed not only coexistence but also accommodation and partnership, which, at its fullest extent, encompasses adversaries as well as friends. ... 

Naturally, I can t know in detail how these risks were balanced in the minds of all participants in the political struggle over TOSCA, acid rain, or other issues. Whatever these internal considerations, however, the results usually show a definite pattern of swinging from one approach to facts and measurements to the other. A not unfamiliar pattern in the political system is that of initial fact and measurement manipulation and exploitation to stake out position, and later intelligent use to build reasonable positions after the fatigue and futility of adversary "fact" games have set in. A common variation is that of initial cooperative work with a common base of fact and measurement among technical colleagues, which switches to the adversary position when... 

Although workers compensation is in theory a straightforward no-fault insurance system, in practice it is often arcane and adversarial. It is important to remember that the person being treated is the patient, not the employer or a referring attorney. 

---