Water wave characteristics

For diabatic flow, that is, one-component flow with subcooled and saturated nucleate boiling, bubbles may exist at the wall of the tube and in the liquid boundary layer. In an investigation of steam-water flow characteristics at high pressures, Kirillov et al. (1978) showed the effects of mass flux and heat flux on the dependence of wave crest amplitude, 8f, on the steam quality, X (Fig. 3.46). The effects of mass and heat fluxes on the relative frictional pressure losses are shown in Figure 3.47. These experimental data agree quite satisfactorily with Tarasova s recommendation (Sec. 3.5.3). 

Thomas and Portalski (T14), 1958 Experimental study of water film flowing inside tube 1.96 X 98 cm., Nr, = 141-493, counterflow of air. Data on film thicknesses, pressure drop, wave characteristics. 

Konobeev et al. (K21), 1961 Experimental study of C02 absorption by water film, with upward and downward cocurrent gas/film flow, inside tubes 1.05-1.66 cm. i.d., 20-87 cm. long. Gas velocities 6-86 m./sec. IVko = 5-105. Length and amplitude of surface ripples and local film thicknesses measured. Rate of mass transfer stated to be function of wave characteristics only. 

The differences between these reefs probably reflect differences in their structural framework and variations in wave characteristics and tidal range in the two environments. Anaerobic reactions in reef interstitial waters may not progress far if reef structures are open and well flushed. If, however, the systems are nearly closed, little fresh reactant will enter via seawater exchange and mass transfer will be limited by the reactants trapped in the reef interstitial waters. An important conclusion of Sansone s studies was that thermodynamic disequilibrium among dissolved species such as CH4 and S04 implies microzonation of chemical reactions. Microzonation resulting in slight differences in reef interstitial water compositions may account for the coexistence of different cement mineralogies in reef structures. 

If you ve ever seen water waves breaking on a shoreline or heard objects in a room vibrate from the effects of loud sound waves, you already know that waves transfer energy from one place to another. Electromagnetic waves have the same characteristics as other waves, as you can see in Figure 2.17. 

The different water wave damping mechanisms of sea slicks and crude oil spills can be understood on the basis of their different influences on the structure and physicochemical characteristics of the air/water interface. 

Much of the procedure for the analysis of jet stability has already been set down in connection with the discussion of undamped surface waves on deep water. A fundamental difference in the jet problem from plane deep water waves is that it is axisymmetric with an imposed characteristic length scale equal to the jet radius a. Since the undisturbed jet is considered to be inviscid and in uniform flow, it can be reduced to a state of rest simply by a Galilean transformation. With gravity neglected and only surface tension forces acting, the pressure at any point within the jet is -I- ala. This then describes the basic flow needed for the first step of the stability analysis. 

Just as with water waves, we can assign a frequency and wavelength to electromagnetic waves, as illustrated in FIGURE 6.3. These and all other wave characteristics of electromagnetic radiation are due to the periodic oscillations in the intensities of the electric and magnetic fields associated with the radiation. 

A Figure 6.2 Characteristics of water waves, (a) The distance between corresponding points on each wave is called the wavelength, (b) The number of times per second that the cork bobs up and down is called the frequency. 

A tsunami is a train of water waves generated by impulsive disturbances of the water surface due to non-meteorological but geophysical phenomena such as submarine earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, submarine slumps and landslides or ice falls into a body of water. The severity of the waves at the nuclear power plant will depend on the characteristics of the seabed movement, the location of the plant (whether it is near a fjord or bay) and the direction of movement with respect to the plant, and the response of the near shore waters to the tsunami waves. Depending on its location, the site might be subjected to damaging waves. 

The beach profile was nearly flat for about 25 m from the shoreline with the depth of about 0.5 m below the mean sea level, and it had the slope of about 1/30 beyond that. Another series of photopole measurements were carried out during the SUPERDUCK campaign in 1986. Dr Hughes kindly supplied the author with the data files of measured wave statistics. The number of poles was increased to 20 and the water depth inclusive of tides varied from 0.4 to 3.7 m. The beach profile during SUPERDUCK is not known, but it would have been nearly the same as DUCK85 because of the same season. All the photopole measurement data were analyzed by the zero-downcrossing method, and various statistical wave characteristics were calculated. 

This chapter presents a brief summary of aeration in the surf zone, beginning with a review of air-water characteristics in surf zone waves. Second, measurements techniques of the bulk of air and bubbles induced by breaking waves in the surf zone are described, and third, the bulk of air and bubble characteristics are summarized based on the in situ and visualization laboratory measurements. Finally, the gas transfer in the surf zone is described and related to the wave characteristics. 

In this chapter, we summarize our general review of gas-water two-phase flow characteristics in the surf zone. There are several measurement methods for the aeration in the surf zone, such as in situ measurements, video or photographic measurements, laser measurements, and acoustic measurements. There is no one appropriate method to measure the volume of air and bubbles in the surf zone. The spatial and temporal characteristics of void fraction are summarized, and the bubble size distribution is described with simple theories. Furthermore, the gas transfer prediction method is presented as a function of the bottom slope and wave characteristics for the surf zone waves. 

These results explain the general characteristics of a freak wave, (a) A second-order nonlinearity causes wave asymmetry over the short-time evolution, 0(l/ ), of a wave train (Here is a small parameter that corresponds to the steepness of deep-water waves), (b) But the kurtosis is associated with the third-order nonlinear interactions. Therefore, it may be that third-order nonlinear interactions are the fundamental factors contributing to the occmrence of fi eak waves. However, the timescales for such interactions are longer than those for second-order interactions, 0 l/e ), and they are two orders of magnitude longer than those for second-order nonlinearities. 

To further test the weak detonation model, S. Goldstein measured the water shock velocity in the aquarium test after the detonation wave interacted with the water above the top of the X0233 cylinder. Her experimental water shock velocities, as a function of distance above the top of the explosive cylinder, are shown in Figure 2.28 along with the calculated water shock velocities. They are consistent with a flat top Taylor wave characteristic of a weak detonation and a detonation front pressure of 160 kbars. The initial water shock velocities exhibit behavior characteristic of irregular decomposition of the explosive near the shock front. The 2DL calculated aquarium pressure contours are shown in Figure 2.29. 

Some of these parameters make it difficult to achieve the designed efficiency and oil and recovery rate of skimmers in real oil spills (Schulze 1998). For instance, it is quite challenging to simulate the exact characteristics of open-water waves, currents, and winds in tank tests where performance of skimmers is tested by manufacturers. Therefore, it is of the utmost importance to identify the operational conditions, and assess their impacts on the effectiveness of skimmers. This provides a basis to estimate the number and type of required skimmers, booms, and the time that the additional skimmers... 

Since irrotational flow is a characteristic of ideal liquids rather than of real (viscous) liquids, the solutions obtained for equation [5.45] are often not realised in practice, particularly in situations where the liquid is flowing across solid surfaces. However, there are situations where the solutions of the Laplace equation should be good approximations to what occurs in practice. Examples are the behaviour of water waves and the flow of a river on the upstream side of a dam. 

Electromagnetic waves, along with water waves and sound waves, exhibit certain common characteristics. All waves consist of a series of crests and troughs that travel away from their source at a velocity that is determined by the nature of the wave and the material through which the wave passes. The rate of vibration of a wave is called its frequency and is defined as the number of waves that pass a given point per second. Wave frequency is expressed in hertz (Hz) one hertz equals one wave per second (s ). 

The apparent contradiction between the particle and the wave picture was solved in a completely unexpected way which called in question the very foundation of the mechanistic world-view - the concept of the reality of matter. At the subatomic level, matter does not exist with certainty in definite places, but rather shows tendencies to exist , and atomic events do not occur with certainty at definite times and in definite ways, but rather show tendencies to occur . In the formalism of quantum theory, these tendencies are expressed as probabilities and are associated with mathematical quantities which take theform of waves. This is why particles can be waves at the same time. They are not real three dimensional waves like sound or water waves. They are probability-waves, abstract mathematical quantities with all the characteristic properties of waves which are related to the probabilities of finding the particles at particular points in space and at particular times. All the laws of atomic physics are expressed in terms of these probabilities. We can never predict an atomic event with certainty we can say only how likely it is to happen. (Capra, p.77)... 

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