Photographic measurement

At its best, the counter diffractometer can give more accurate intensity measurements than photographs measured by a microdensitometer, and can give results more rapidly but the equipment is more complex arid requires more effort iit maintenance. The accuracy of the results depends on the number of quanta counted at any angle of diffraction ... 

Fig. 2. Line profiles of some rare earth element atomic emission lines in inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry (photographic measurements obtained with a high-resolution grating spectrograph) ...

VELOCITY PATTERNS AND VELOCITY GRADIENTS. More details of the flow patterns, the local velocities, and the total flow produced by an impeller have been obtained by use of small velocity probes or by photographic measurements of tracer particles. Some of Cutter s results for a 4-in. flat-blade turbine in an... 

Fig. 7. Comparison of Geiger-Mueller and photographic measurement of small angle scatter of heated gamma-alumina.

Increase the photographic measurement accuracy by a universal device. 

Typical load-lateral deformation responses at midheight are shown in Figure 7.33 for temperatures up to 180 °C [22], At 220 °C, deformations were less than 0.5 mm and therefore below the photographic measurement accuracy. The curves exhibit similar pre- and post-buckling shapes and temperature-dependence as shown in Figure 7.32 for the axial displacements. 

Predictably, the constant K in Equations 7A.8 and 7A.9 is decided by any additives (surface-active agents) or liquid physical properties (viscosity/surface tension) that tend to stabilize the bubble. The effects of surface-active agents and electrolytes and viscosity are discussed in detail in Section 10.3.2.1 and 10.3.2.1, respectively. Parthasarathy and Ahmed (1991) have given Equation 7A.10 for the Sauter mean bubble diameter based on their photographic measurements in stirred vessels ... 

Visual examination including low magnification, photographs, measurement of depth, assessment of size and number of pits, ASTM G 46. Determination of effect on mechanical properties. 

Visued examination and photographs. Measurement of reflectivity or image clarity. 

A diffractometer which performs only point measurements, does not give the cell constants unambiguously, since it deals only with discrete points in the reciprocal space. Continuous mens-urement in the reciprocal space is necessary to make certain that no essential points for unit cell determination have been missed. This fact, together with pedagogical considerations, is the reason that film techniques are still used in the X-ray diffraction laboratory, A modem four-circle diffractometer is equipped to perform the necessary photographic measurements which a three-circle diffractometer is unable to do. 

The factor A2 describes the influences of the profile of the analysis line and the effective measurement slit. For photoelectric measurements, the latter is the exit slit width. r, of the spectrometer. This contribution is relevant only when sjs ff < 2, which is practically the case only for photographic measurements where the line profile is scanned with a very narrow densitometer slit. For photoelectric measurements, A2=sjscff 1, as the exit slit width must be larger than the effective line width because of the thermal and mechanical stability of the system. The detection limit is a relevant figure of merit for an analytical method (Section 21.3.1). It can be written for AES ... 

Its value can be measured directly, but in photographic measurements it can be calculated from the standard deviation of the blackening with the aid of Equation (115). The latter shows that for trace analyses, emulsions with a high y must be used. In photoelectric measurements, 0 is the relative standard deviation of the background intensity, measured at a wavelength adjacent to the spectral line or in a blank sample at the wavelength of the analytical line. It may comprise several contributions ... 

In this chapter, we summarize our general review of gas-water two-phase flow characteristics in the surf zone. There are several measurement methods for the aeration in the surf zone, such as in situ measurements, video or photographic measurements, laser measurements, and acoustic measurements. There is no one appropriate method to measure the volume of air and bubbles in the surf zone. The spatial and temporal characteristics of void fraction are summarized, and the bubble size distribution is described with simple theories. Furthermore, the gas transfer prediction method is presented as a function of the bottom slope and wave characteristics for the surf zone waves. 

---