Textile analysis

Permanent hardness is estimated by evaporating 100 ml of the sample to dryness on a water-bath with a known volume of n/10 sodium carbonate solution. The residue is extracted with freshly boiled hot distilled water, and is separated from the insoluble residue of calcium carbonate by filtration. The filter paper is washed four times with hot distilled water and then the filtrate together with the washings are cooled and titrated with n/10 hydrochloric acid in the presence of methyl orange. Each ml of n/10 sodium carbonate which has disappeared corresponds with 0 005 g of permanent hardness expressed as calcium carbonate. (For further information see S. R. and E. R. Trotman, Textile Analysis.)... 

Miller and Eichinger [87] determined the crystallinity and morphology of fibrous and bulk PET by NIR reflectance spectroscopy. NIR applications for polyester fiber, such as percent finish, are discussed by Ghosh in the chapter on textile analysis in this textbook. 

Much of the history of brazilwood must be inferred from dociunentary and textile somces. Suleiman mentions what may be identified as brazilwood in 851 ad as coming from Sumatra, though without giving a term for it, while Masudis refers to bokkam some 100 years later (cf. Floss, 1962). It has also been suggested (on the basis of textile analysis) that supply problems occurred in the second half of the fifteenth century, when supplies from C. sappan may have become disrupted, but before the discoveries of alternative soiuce species in South America (Hofenk-de Graaff and Roeloffs, 1972). 

S. Kawabata, The Standardicyation and Analysis of Hand Evaluation, 2nd ed.. The Textile Machineiy Society of Japan, Tokyo, 1980. 

The ready availabiUty of computers has led to the detailed analysis of the colorant formulation problems faced every day by the textile, coatings, ceramics, polymer, and related industries. The resulting computer match prediction has produced improved color matching and reductions in the amounts of colorants required to achieve a specific result with accompanying reductions of cost. Detailed treatments have been given for dyes and for pigments (13,29,30). 

Wouters, J., High performance liquid chromatography of anthraquinones analysis of plant and insect extracts and dyed textiles. Stud. Conserv., 30, 119, 1985. 

It should be understood that the reported practices of polymer/additive analysis, being the focus of this book, equally well apply to additive analysis of rubbers, textile fibres, surface coatings, paints, resins, adhesives, paper and food, but specific product knowledge gives the edge. Both fresh and aged materials may be analysed, as well as those of both industrial and forensic origin. 

An important QC analysis in the fibre and textile industry is the surface finish determination by Soxhlet extraction (AATCC Test Method 94-1992). Solvent extraction is used on textile materials to determine naturally occurring oily and waxy materials that have not been completely removed from the fibres (ASTM Method D 2257-96). Meanwhile, environmental, safety... 

SFC-FID is widely used for the analysis of (nonvolatile) textile finish components. An application of SFC in fuel product analysis is the determination of lubricating oil additives, which consist of complex mixtures of compounds such as zinc dialkylthiophosphates, organic sulfur compounds (e.g. nonylphenyl sulfides), hindered phenols (e.g. 2,6-di-f-butyl-4-methylphenol), hindered amines (e.g. dioctyldiphenylamines) and surfactants (sulfonic acid salts). Classical TLC, SEC and LC analysis are not satisfactory here because of the complexity of such mixtures of compounds, while their lability precludes GC determination. Both cSFC and pSFC enable analysis of most of these chemical classes [305]. Rather few examples have been reported of thermally unstable compounds analysed by SFC an example of thermally labile polymer additives are fire retardants [360]. pSFC has been used for the separation of a mixture of methylvinylsilicones and peroxides (thermally labile analytes) [361]. 

Identification of dyes on dyed textiles is traditionally carried out by destructive techniques [493], TLC is an outstanding technique for identification of extracted dyestuffs and examination of inks. Figure 4.9 shows HPTLC/SERRS analysis of acridine orange [492], Wright et al. [494] have described a simple and rapid TLC-videodensitometric method for in situ quantification of lower halogenated subsidiary colours (LHSC) in multiple dye samples. The results obtained by this method were compared with those obtained by an indirect TLC-spectrophotometric method and those from HPLC. The total time for the TLC-videodensitometric assay of five standards and four samples applied to each plate was less than 45 min. The method is applicable for use in routine batch-certification analysis. Loger et al. [495,496] have chromatographed 19 basic dyes for PAN fibres on alumina on thin-layer with ethanol-water (5 2) and another 11 dyes on silica gel G with pyridine-water... 

CE is also potentially a useful alternative analytical tool for monitoring of chemicals (dyes, flame retardants and lubricants) involved in various steps of the textile fibre manufacturing process. In this area, CE compares favourably with existing techniques. CZE-MSn was used for the analysis of sulfonated azo dyes [942]. A variety of fluorescent analytes including thiazole orange dyes have been characterised by CE-FLNS [943]. 

On-line SFE-SFC-ELSD analysis of the textile and fibre finish components, butyl stearate/palmitate/myri-state, was reported [118]. Similarly, Kirschner et al. [119] used on-line SFE-pSFC for fibre finish analysis on-line SFE-SFC was also instrumental in the analysis of the total composite finish on a commercial textile thread [120]. 

Applications With the current use of soft ionisation techniques in LC-MS, i.e. ESI and APCI, the application of MS/MS is almost obligatory for confirmatory purposes. However, an alternative mass-spectrometric strategy may be based on the use of oaToF-MS, which enables accurate mass determination at 5 ppm. This allows calculation of the elemental composition of an unknown analyte. In combination with retention time data, UV spectra and the isotope pattern in the mass spectrum, this should permit straightforward identification of unknown analytes. Hogenboom et al. [132] used such an approach for identification and confirmation of analytes by means of on-line SPE-LC-ESI-oaToFMS. Off-line SPE-LC-APCI-MS has been used to determine fluorescence whitening agents (FWAs) in surface waters of a Catalan industrialised area [138]. Similarly, Alonso et al. [139] used off-line SPE-LC-DAD-ISP-MS for the analysis of industrial textile waters. SPE functions here mainly as a preconcentration device. 

Yang et al. [389] rapidly distinguished compounds extracted from paper, using on-line SFE-SFC-FHR in conjunction with principal component analysis. The quantitative determination of the surfactant mixture Triton X-100 and other complex oligoether surfactants by means of cSFC-FTIR flow-cells has been reported [390,391]. Practical applications of SFC-FTIR include the determination of nonvolatile compounds from microwave-susceptible packaging that may migrate into heated food. Another application is the analysis of fibre finishes on fibre/textile matrices. 

Hofenk de Graff, J. H. and W. G. T. Roelofs (1978), The analysis of flavonoids in natural yellow dyestuffs occurring in ancient textiles, Proc. bit. Council of Museums Committee for Conservation, 5th Trienial Mtg., Zagreb. 

Koren, Z. (1996), Historico-chemical analysis of plant dyestuffs used in textiles from ancient Israel, in Orna, M. V. (ed.), Archaeological Chemistry, Vol. 5, Organic, Inorganic and Biochemical Analysis, Advances in Chemistry Series, American Chemical Society, Washington, DC, pp. 269-310. 

Kouznetsov, D. A., A. A. Ivanov, and P. R. Veletsky (1996), Analysis of cellulose chemical modification A potentially promising technique for characterizing cellulose archaeological textiles, /. Archaeol. Sci. 23, 23-34,109-121. 

FBAs can also be estimated quantitatively by fluorescence spectroscopy, which is much more sensitive than the ultraviolet method but tends to be prone to error and is less convenient to use. Small quantities of impurities may lead to serious distortions of both emission and excitation spectra. Indeed, a comparison of ultraviolet absorption and fluorescence excitation spectra can yield useful information on the purity of an FBA. Different samples of an analytically pure FBA will show identical absorption and excitation spectra. Nevertheless, an on-line fluorescence spectroscopic method of analysis has been developed for the quantitative estimation of FBAs and other fluorescent additives present on a textile substrate. The procedure was demonstrated by measuring the fluorescence intensity at various excitation wavelengths of moving nylon woven fabrics treated with various concentrations of an FBA and an anionic sizing agent. It is possible to detect remarkably small differences in concentrations of the absorbed materials present [67]. 

J. Wouters, I. Van den Berghe, B. Devia, Understanding historic dyeing technology a multi faced approach, in Scientific Analysis of Ancient and Historic Textiles, R. Janaway and P. Wyeth (Eds), Archetype Publications, London, 2005, pp. 187 193. 

Flavonoids bonded to fibres undergo photodegradation over the course of time their identification in historic textiles is thus often difficult. The analysis of a wool orange fibre (from a nineteenth century Aubusson tapestry) dyed with alum mordant and quercetin enabled the presence of quercetin (at m/z 301) and its decomposition products, 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid (at m/z 153) and methyl 3,4-dihydroxybenzoate (at m/z 167), to be confirmed. [30] The samples were hydrolysed with hydrochloric acid and analysed with RPLC MS. 

Mild extraction was also found to be effective in the analysis of extracts of Flaveria haumanii, l in which quercetin, kaempferol, isorhamnetin as well as their glycosides and sulfate esters were identified. The obtained results were useful in the identification of the colourants from fibres from pre-Columbian Andean textiles extracted with the use of water-methanol solution with formic or hydrochloric acid. The components of each extract were separated on a reversed phase HPLC column and the eluates were monitored at... 

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