Swimming pool, chloroform

A 5—6% sodium hypochlorite solution is sold for household purposes, of which the largest use is in laundry. Solutions of 10—15% NaOCl are sold for swimming pool disinfection, institutional laundries, and industrial purposes. Solutions of various strengths are used in household and industrial and institutional (I I) cleaners, disinfectants, and mildewcides. A small amount is used in textile mills. Sodium hypochlorite is also made on site with 30—40 g/L available chlorine for pulp bleaching, but its use is decreasing in order to reduce chloroform emissions (see Chlorine oxygen acids and salts). 

The air around swimming pools may also contain chloroform. This is especially likely in heated, indoor pools, which can approximate the conditions found in shower stalls. Concentrations ranging from 3.5x10 to 19.9x10 ppm (440-2,335 nmol/m ) have been reported for environmental air at an indoor swimming pool (Aggazzotti et al. 1990, 1993). 

In addition to drinking water, chlorinated oxidants reacting with organic materials will lead to the formation of chloroform in swimming pools. Since swimming pools are not routinely analyzed for their chloroform content, data are limited and derived from special studies. Such studies will often cover the broader family of THMs, and while chloroform levels in blood or alveolar air samples will be reported, the environmental agents will often simply be recorded in terms of THMs. A rule of thumb (Copaken 1990) is... 

Aggazzotti G, Fantuzzi G, Righi E, et al. 1993. Chloroform in alveolar air of individuals attending indoor swimming pools. Arch Environ Health 48(4) 250-254. 

In addition to the use of chlorine as an antiseptic for swimming pools and drinking water, large amounts are used during industrial processes that produce paper, plastics, textiles, dyes, medicines, insecticides, solvents, and some paints. Following are some of the more important compounds of chlorine used in industries hydrochloric acid (HCl + H O), table salt (NaCl), chloroform (CHCL ), carbon tetrachloride (CCy, magnesium chloride (MgCl ), chlorine dioxide (CIO ), potassium chloride (KCl), and lithium chloride (LiCl). 

MIMS is a technique that uses a semipermeable membrane for directly introducing analytes into the mass spectrometer. This allows analytes to be measured in realtime with little or no sample preparation. MIMS has been previously used to measure the stability of CNCl in chlorinated and chloraminated drinking water [168], to quantify CNCl and CNBr in drinking water [169], to measure chloramines and chlorobenzenes in water samples [170], and investigate the mechanism and kinetics of chloroform formation in drinking water [171]. More recently, it has been used to measure volatile DBPs in indoor swimming pools [138, 172]. 

Chloroform is a volatile, low-molecular weight, lipophilic compound and a chlorinated trihalo-metheane. Most of the chloroform produced in the United States is used to make fluorocarbon 22 (HCFC 22) and the rest is produced for export and miscellaneous uses. In the past it was used as an inhalation anesthetic and as an extraction for, fats, oils, greases and other products, as a dry cleaning spot remover, in fire extinguishers, and as a fumigant. It is available as emulsions, spirits, tinctures, and chloroform water. Chloroform is also formed as a by-product of chlorination of water, wastewater, and swimming pool. Other sources include pulp and paper mills, hazardous waste sites, and sanitary landfills. 

Swimming pool, 1 hour (for child) Chloroform, 250 jig (average pool) (119) 90 ... 

Chlorination of swimming-pool water results in the formation of many chlorinated products. The most frequent derivative is trichloromethane (chloroform) (Camman and Hiibner 1995). Combined with organic nitrogenous compounds (urea, creatinine) generated by swimmers (sweat, urine), active free chlorine produces combined chlorine compounds, such as chloramines, which are irritants. When residual free chlorine levels are lower than 0.3 mg/1, chloramines increase. To decrease chloramine irritant levels and dissociate trichloramines, it is necessary to add chlorine, to provide water renewal and to ensure good air... 

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