Stachybotrys chartarum

Mahmoudi, M. and Gershwin M.E. Sick building syndrome. III. Stachybotrys chartarum. J. Asthma 37, 191, 2000. 

Viana, M.E., et al., An extract of Stachybotrys chartarum causes allergic asthma-like responses in a BALB/c mouse model, Toxicol. Sci., 70, 98, 2002. 

Fig. 3 Two dolabellanes (28, 29) from the mould Stachybotrys chartarum (2000). Absolute configuration not verified...

Cruz-Perez, P., Buttner, M. P., and Stetzenbach, L. D. (2001). Specific detection of Stachybotrys chartarum in pure cultures using quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Mol. Cell. Probes 15,129-138. 

Haugland, R. A., and Heckman, J. L. (1998). Identification of putative sequence specific PCR primers for detection of the toxigenic fungal species Stachybotrys chartarum. Mol. Cell. Probes 12, 387- 96. 

Peltola, S., Niessen, L., Nielsen, K. F., Jarvis, B. B., Andersen, B., Salldnoja-Salonen, M., and Moller, E. M. (2002). Toxigenic diversity of two different RAPD groups of Stachybotrys chartarum isolates analyzed by potetial for trichothecene production and for boar sperm cell motility inhibition. Can. J. Microbiol. 48, 1017-1029. 

Straus, N. A., and Wong, B. (1998). Stachybotrys chartarum trichodiene synthase (TR15) gene, complete cds. GenBank accession no. AF053926, direct submission, 17. March 1998.. ... 

Vesper SJ, Dearborn DG, Yike I, Sorenson WG, Haugland RA Hemolysis, toxicity, and randomly amplified polymorphic DNA analysis of Stachybotrys chartarum strains. Appl Environ Microbiol... 

Recent studies indicate that some trichothecenes can bind covalently. Satratoxin G, a macrocyclic trichothecene, forms covalent adducts with proteins and potentially other cellular macromolecules (Gregory et al, 2004 Yike et al, 2006). The ability of satratoxin G to bind to albumin provides a potential biomarker of exposure to the toxin as well as to Stachybotrys chartarum. 

Stachybotrys chartarum (previously also called S. atrd), the fungal cause of stachybotryotoxicosis and sick building syndrome, is a black mold. There are two toxic chemo-types of S. chartarum, one elaborating highly toxic macrocyclic trichothecenes and the other less toxic atra-nones and simple, but not macrocychc, trichothecenes (Andersen et al, 2002). Exposure may be by ingestion, e.g. exposure to contaminated straw, or inhalation as when mold grows in water-damaged homes or air ducts. 

Stachybotrys chartarum is one of the most commonly noted agents associated with so-called sick building or damp building-related syndrome and damp building-related illnesses (DBRI). While upper and some lower respiratory tract symptoms have been accepted as causally linked to human exposure to moldy damp indoor environments, other reported effects, including airflow obstruction, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, pulmonary hemorrhage, neurologic effects and cancer, have not (Institute of Medicine, 2004). An excellent recent review of S. chartarum, associated trichothecene mycotoxins, and DBRI is available (Pestka et al, 2008). 

Gregory, L., Pestka, J.J., Dearboam, D.G., Rand, T.G. (2004). Localization of saratoxin-G in Stachybotrys chartarum spores and spore-impacted mouse lung using immunocytochemistry. Toxicol. Pathol. 32 26-34. 

Islam, Z., Harkema, J.R., Pestka, J.J. (2006). Satratoxin G from the black mold Stachybotrys chartarum evokes olfactory sensory neuron loss and inflammation in the murine nose and hxam. Environ. Health Perspect. 114 1099-1107. 

Pestka, J.J., Yike, I., Dearborn, D.G., Ward, M.D., Harkema, J.R. (2008). Stachybotrys chartarum, trichothecene mycotoxins, and damp building-related illness new insights into a public health enigma. Toxicol. Sci. 104 4-26. 

Rand, T.G., Mahoney, M., White, K., Oulton, M. (2002). Micro-anatomical changes in alveolar type II cells in juvenile mice intratracheally exposed to Stachybotrys chartarum spores and toxin. Toxicol. Sci. 65 239 5. 

Yike, I., Distler, A.M., Ziady, A.G., Dearborn, D.G. (2006). Mycotoxin adducts on human serum albumin biomarkers of exposure to Stachybotrys chartarum. Environ. Health Per-spect. 114 1221-6. 

Kuhn DM, Ghannoum MA. Indoor mold, toxigenic fungi, and Stachybotrys chartarum Infectious disease perspective. Clin Microbiol Rev 2003 16(1) 144 72. 

Brasel TL, Martin CG, Carriker SC, et al. Detection of airborne Stachybotrys chartarum macrocyclic trichothene mycotoxins in the indoor environment. Appl Environ Microbiol 2005 71(11) 7376-88. 

Alternaria alternata Stachybotrys chartarum Yeasts, for example Rhodotorula Sporobolomyces Actinomycetes Stachybotrys chartarum... 

It should also be mentioned that the majority of microbial airborne particles are dead or noncultivable , which means that they do not grow under the laboratory conditions chosen. This is, for example, true for microorganisms hke Stachybotrys chartarum. To fully survey the indoor microbial situation and to avoid overlooking fungal species which may be indicators of damage, additional samples have to be taken using methods hke direct microscopy which are not dependent on hving, cultivable cultures. Here, for example, microscopic slides with an adhesive surface are inserted in special impactor samplers. The airborne particles collected are stained in the laboratory. EspeciaUy spores with a characteristic shape hke those of S. chartarum are easily detected under the microscope. 

There are many other typical types of mold that can be found on wood and composite materials, such as Epicoccum sp., Fusarium sp.. Geotrichum sp., Stachybotrys chartarum, Ulocladium sp., and others. 

II. Toxic dose. Because mycotoxins are not volatile, exposure would require inhalation of aerosolized spores, mycelial fragments, or contaminated substrates. The toxic inhaled dose of mycotoxin for humans is not known. Based on experimental data from single-dose in vivo studies, Stachybotrys chartarum spores (in-tranasally in mice or intratracheally in rats) high doses (more than 30 million spores/kg) can produce pulmonary inflammation and hemorrhage. The no-effect dose in rats (3 million ores/kg) corresponds to a continuous 24-hour exposure to 2.1 million spores/m for infants, 6.6 million spores/m for a school-age child, or 15.3 million spores/m for an adult. These spore concentrations are much higher than those measured in building surveys. 

Jarvis BB, Sorenson WG, Hintikka E-L, Nikulin M, Zhou Y, Jiang J, Wang S, Hinkley S, Etzel RA, Dearborn D (1998) Study of Toxin Production by Isolates of Stachybotrys chartarum and Memnoniella echinata Isolated During a Study of Pulmonary Hemisiderosis in Infants. Appl Environ Microbiol 64 3620... 

Wilkins K (2000) Volatile Sesquiterpenes from Stachybotrys chartarum. Environ Sci Pollut Res 7 77... 

Fig. 8.2 Fusarium sp. (upper left), cultures of a Phomopsis strain (upper right), Trichoderma viride (bottom left), and Stachybotrys chartarum (bottom right)...

Cyclic peptide antibiotic. Prod, by Stachybotrys chartarum. Immunosuppressant. Powder + IH2O. Mp 156-158°. [a]p —230 (c, 1 in CHCI3). Related to Cyclosporins, C-02421. 

MARTIN J.P. and HAIDER K. 1969. Phenolic polymers of Staohyhotvys astra Stachybotrys chartarum and Epicocoum nigrum in relation to humic acid formation. Soil Science, 107, 260-270,... 

How common is mold, including Stachybotrys chartarum (also known by its synonym Stachybotrys atra) in buildings ... 

---