Source of Energy

Homogenization of Tissues 3 Differential Centrifugation Technique 3 Separation of Cellular Components Intracellular Distribution of Biochemical Components 7 Distribution of Basic Cellular Constituents Reference Compounds Distribution of Multiple-Enzyme Systems 

Triose Metabolism Glycogen Breakdown 16 Muscle Phosphorylase Liver Phosphorylase Phosphoglucomutase Amylo-1,6-glucosidase 

Intracellular Distribution of the Glycolytic and Glycogenolytic Enzymes Glycogen Synthesis 20 Role of Phosphorylase Other Pathways for Glycogen Synthesis Branching Enzyme 

Pentose Phosphate Pathway 21 Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase 6-Phosphogluconate Dehydrogenase Metabolism of Ribulose-5-Phosphate Role of the Pentose Phosphate Pathway in Metabolism Distribution of the Pentose Pathway in the Organism 

Intracellular Distribution of Glucuronic and Pentose Pathways 25 Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle 26 Lipoic Acid 

All forms of spectroscopy require a source of energy. In absorption and scattering spectroscopy this energy is supplied by photons. Emission and luminescence spectroscopy use thermal, radiant (photon), or chemical energy to promote the analyte to a less stable, higher energy state. 

Emission spectrum from a typical continuum source. 

A source that emits radiation over a wide range of wavelengths. 

Sources of Thermal Energy The most common sources of thermal energy are flames and plasmas. Flame sources use the combustion of a fuel and an oxidant such as acetylene and air, to achieve temperatures of 2000-3400 K. Plasmas, which are hot, ionized gases, provide temperatures of 6000-10,000 K. 

Because some fossil fuel is converted into electricity care needs to be taken in interpreting statistics of energy supply. Thus the consumption of energy 

Total consumption by users = 152.3 mtoe Source Reference 3. 

In Table 8.3 the supply of energy to the chemical industry is shown as 5.1 mtoe with petroleum (oil) and natural gas being more important than coal, but electricity being the most important contributor. The total consumption of energy by industry in the U.K. is 36.2 mtoe so the chemical industry takes 14.1% of the energy used in industry. The 5.1 mtoe consumed by the chemical industry is exceeded only by the 7.2 mtoe consumed by the iron and steel industry. 

Apart from energy consumption the chemical industry also uses fossil fuels for feedstocks and other materials. In 1993 5.9 mtoe were used as oil based feedstock for chemical plants and of this 3.1 million tonnes were 

The sources of supply of energy in the U.K. and usually in the world have changed over time from a predominance of coal in the last century and into this century, followed by the growing importance of oil with its widespread discovery and exploitation, and this is now supplemented by natural gas. The current worldwide pattern is shown in Table 8.4. Oil is dominant with approximately 50% greater consumption than coal, while natural gas is not far behind coal .  

The glucose circulating in the body s bloodstream serves to keep the cells supplied with a steady source of potential energy. Many cells, notably liver and muscle, absorb from the blood more than they require for their immediate needs, and this surplus is turned into glycogen, to guard against harder times later on. If the glyeo- 

The first step towards the breakdown of glucose is at first sight a strange one it demands the phosphorylation of glucose. The fact 

Glucose-6-phosphate is then converted by the enzyme phospho-hexoisomerase to fructose-6-phosphate. A further phosphate group is then transferred from ATP to produce the highly reactive molecule fructose 1, 6, diphosphate, catalysed by the enzyme phosphofructokinase. 

In the fourth reaction, the fructose i, 6, dispnosphate is split into two 3-carbon fragments by the enzyme aldolase  

The next stage in the degradation is the oxidation of glyceralde-hyde-3-phosphate to 3-phosphoglyceric acid. In principle, one could write the reaction as 

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One advantage of anaerobic reactions is that the methane produced can be a useful source of energy. This can be fed to steam boilers or burnt in a heat engine to produce power. 

In order to further cla.ssify these reactions, a search for reactions that transform ATP to ADP was made, resulting in 139 reactions 139 of the above 304 reactions involve the breaking of a P-0 bond in ATP, emphasizing the central importance of this bond breaking as a source of energy, An additional three reactions involve the transformation of GTP to GDP. As many reactions transferring a phosphate group... 

In the laboratory it is more convenient to use light either visible or ultraviolet as the source of energy to initiate the reaction Reactions that occur when light energy IS absorbed by a molecule are called photochemical reactions Photochemical techniques permit the reaction of alkanes with chlorine to be performed at room temperature... 

The essential features of an NMR spectrometer shown m Figure 13 5 are not hard to understand They consist of a magnet to align the nuclear spins a radiofrequency (rf) transmitter as a source of energy to excite a nucleus from its lowest energy state to the next higher one a receiver to detect the absorption of rf radiation and a recorder to print out the spectrum... 

A more direct source of energy for animals is provided by the starches found m many plants Starch is a mixture containing about 20% of a water dispersible fraction called amylose and 80% of a second component amylopectm... 

Fa.ts nd Oils. Eats and oils from rendering animal and fish offal and vegetable oilseeds provide nutritional by-products used as a source of energy, unsaturated fatty acids, and palatabiHty enhancement. Eats influence the texture in finished pet foods. The use and price of the various melting point fats is deterrnined by the type and appearance of the desired finished food appearance. 

Other sources of energy worth noting are the extensive wind farms, solar projects, and related emerging unconventional technologies. These renewable resources provide only small quantities of energy to the U.S. economy as of this writing. 

D. A. Flint and C. Norris, 1986 Capacity and Generation of Non-Utility Sources of Energy, Edison Electric Institute, Washington, D.C., July 1988. 

It is useful to examine the combustion process appHed to soHd wastes as fuels and sources of energy. AH soHd wastes are quite variable in composition, moisture content, and heating value. Consequendy, they typically are burned in systems such as grate-fired furnaces or duidized-bed boilers where significant fuel variabiUty can be tolerated. 

Fuels ndEfficiency. Natural gas, oil, and electricity are the primary sources of energy propane is used as backup reserve in emergencies. Natural gas is the least expensive and most frequently used fuel, with heat content ranging from 34—45 MJ/nf (900—1200 Btu/ft ) for raw gas and approximately 3 MJ/m (80 Btu/fT) for air-gas mixtures. Fuel oil has heat content between 39—43 MJ/L (139,600—153,000 Btu/U.S. gal). Fuel oil is viscous at low temperature and must be heated before being fed to atomizing burners where it is mixed with air for combustion. 

The main commercial source of methane, ethane, and propane is natural gas, which is found ia many areas of the world ia porous reservoirs they are associated either with cmde oil (associated gas) or ia gas reservoirs ia which no oil is present (nonassociated gas). These gases are basic raw materials for the organic chemical industry as well as sources of energy. The composition of natural gas varies widely but the principal hydrocarbon usually is methane (see Gas, natural). Compositions of typical natural gases are Hsted ia Table 2. 

Phospholipids. Phospholipids, components of every cell membrane, are active determinants of membrane permeabiUty. They are sources of energy, components of certain enzyme systems, and involved in Hpid transport in plasma. Because of their polar nature, phosphoUpids can act as emulsifying agents (42). The stmcture of most phosphoUpids resembles that of triglycerides except that one fatty acid radical has been replaced by a radical derived from phosphoric acid and a nitrogen base, eg, choline or serine. 

Other Oil Shale Operations. As of this writing, commercial production of shale ok is stkl being conducted in the People s RepubHc of China and Estonia. However, production rates continue to dwindle owing to the avakabkity of conventional petroleum and other sources of energy as well as continued worldwide energy conservation. 

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