Research and Operational Experience

In this section, some of the operational experiences and recent developments for explosives detection are discussed. Most of the data in this section were published by law enforcement agencies or supplied by manufacturers of commercial IMS devices. Thus, there is an emphasis on practical aspects and field tests. The descriptions are based mainly on the manufacturers claims and brochures, except if objective reports on comparative evaluations and field tests were available. The common or conventional explosives that contain nitro functional groups can be divided into two categories relatively volatile substances such as NG and EGDN and low-vapor-pressure materials such as RDX, PETN, and HMX. The vapor pressure of TNT is between these two groups. There are several commercial and military composites that are mixtures 

FIGURE 12.3 Some modem IMS-based commercial explosive detectors. Top The ItemiserDX and Hardened MobileTrace (Morpho Detection, Safran) (from http //www. morpho.com/detection/see-all-products/trace-detection/). Bottom The lONSCAN 500DT and the MMTD (Multi-Mode Threat Detector) (Smiths Detection) (from http //www.smiths-detection.com). 

Zeev Karpas, Ion mobility spectrometry a tool in the war against terror, 

As identification of the explosives is based on the reduced mobility of the ions in the spectrum, the dopant affects the product ions and is therefore a consideration in detection algorithms. Several of the older studies on the suitability of IMS for the detection and identification of explosives arising early in the development of modem analytical IMS have been summarized in a review article,and later advances have been described. Some of these studies were concerned with the ion chemistry of explosive vapors, although attempts to determine minimum detectable limits were made in others. 

Several studies attempted to address the problem of detection of explosives and their degradation or dissociation products in water. These are only briefly discussed 

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BiChlor is the result of extensive market research and operating experience... 

Mechanisms in the chain of safety research and operational experiences in aviation psychology. 

Mechanisms in the chain of safety research and operational experiences in aviation psychology / compiled by Alex de Voogt and Teresa C. D Oliveira. p. cm. 

A fundamental concept of ICAM is acceptance of the inevitabiUty of human error. Human factors research and operational experience has shown that human error is a normal characteristic of human behaviour, and although it can be reduced, it cannot be completely eliminated (Helmieich and Merritt, 2000). An organization cannot change the human condition, but they can change the conditions imder which humans work, thereby making the system more error tolerant (Reason, 2000). 

Structure. Simulation of rocking curves is an extremely powerful method of interpretation of complex stractures. In addition, it is veiy valuable for the design of experiments, optimisation of data collection strategy and education of new researchers and operators in high resolution diffractometiy. 

Actually most of the information needed for proper decisions is already available from past research or operating experience. It is not, however, in a form which can be used effectively until a mathematical model is constructed. The design of the model and its adaptation to a computer can involve a significant amount of effort and cost. The alternatives of direct experimentation or neglecting the problem involve such large economic debits, however, that the use of computers in this work is most attractive. 

This research focuses on the induced-air flotation process for the removal of dispersed oil droplets. The industrial use of induccd-air flotation devices for oil wastewater separation began in IW9. Basset1 provides the process development history, equipment description, and operating experience lor an induced air unit similar to the design used in the experiments described here. Although induced-air flotation equipment is simple, the fluid mechanics of the process are not and the arrangement of the turbine, sleeve, and perforations have been determined necessarily by trail-and-crror experimentation with small-scale units. 

The deterministic approach studies the behaviour of the plant in operational states and under specific accident conditions originally identified on the basis of evaluations of prudent engineering or for compliance with the chosen criteria. Today, probabilistic techniques are sometimes used to aid decisions concerning the deterministic approach, for example if a new candidate appears (e.g. from research or operating experience) for inclusion in the list of Design Basis Accidents (DBAs), the decision on inclusion or not can be aided by a probabilistic comparison with other situations already inserted in the DBA list. Usually the deterministic analyses are performed using conservative assumptions on input data, intermediate parameters for the analyses and on the behaviour of plant systems (single failure, etc.). Consequently, the behaviour of the plant as evaluated could be rather different from the most... 

More than 40 years of fast reactor research and development, design and operating experience have paved the road towards economic fast reaaors, giving confidence that competitiveness can be reached. 

III-6] KAPLAR, YE.P., et al.. Pilot and demonstration nuclear thermoelectric facility GAMMA (Construction and operation experience). Report of the Russian Research Centre Kurchatov Institute , Reg. No.31/1-600-04 (2004). 

Research results and operating experience reported by experts allow recommendations to be made for the selection of materials and to provide assistance in the assessment of damage. 

This unique international handbook edition combines history of development, research, industrial operating experience, new designs, systems and safety analysis, and applications of nuclear energy and many other related topics that help change the world and our lives for the best ... 

Kneissel, P. J., Staudinger, G., Weitzer, M., and lyers, R., 1989, Design, Start-up, and Operating Experience of FGD System with Gypsum By-Product at Riedersbach No. 2 in Austria, Proceedings First Combined Flue Gas Desulfurization and Dry SO2 Control Symposium, EPRI GS-6307, Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA, April. 

In 1960 the author was charged with the review and improvement of the ethylene oxide technology of Union Carbide Corporation (UCC). A historic overv iew revealed some interesting facts. The basic French patent of Lefort (1931,1935) for ethylene oxide production was purchased by UCC in 1936. In 1937, a pilot-plant was operated and commercial production started in 1938. By 1960, UCC s production experience was several hundred reactor-years. This was expressed as the sum of the number of production reactors, each multiplied by the number of years it had been in operation. Research and development had continued since the purchase of the original patent and the total number of people involved in ethylene oxide related research at one time reached one hundred. 

Fleming, K. N. et al.. Classification and Analvsis of Reactor Operating Experience Involving Dependent Events. EPRI NP-3967, Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, California, 1985. 

The total investment cost of the Sundsvall snow cooling plant was about 14.5 MSEK, or 1.59 M . Since this full scale operation plant was made also for experiments, research and demonstration it was difficult to distribute the cost in an appropriate way, e.g. the cost of reconstructions. An estimated cost split up is shown in Table 26 (Larsson, 2005). 

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