Reactor per year

Realising these growth scenarios seems very ambitious, particularly in the short term. At present, only three or four new reactors per year are completed. According... 

Nuclear power plants use fuel rods with a life span of about three years. Each year, roughly one-third of spent fuel rods are removed and stored in cooling basins, either at the reactor site or elsewhere. Typical modern nuclear power plants discharge about 30 tons of the spent fuel per reactor per year. Comparatively little of Lite radioactive wastes, as is currently reliably known worldwide, has been processed for return to the fuel cycle. Actually, fuel reprocessing causes a net increase in the volume of radioactive wastes, but, as in the ease of military wastes, they are less hazardous in the long term. Nevertheless, the wastes from reprocessing also must be disposed of with great care. 

It is obvious that the purchase of raw materials dominates. Personnel, equipment, facility, and utility costs combined are only slightly over 10% of the total cost to produce the SiC fiber. The calculations indicate, for the reference case, that the quantity of fiber produced per reactor per year is 110000 lbs at a cost of 10.3/lb. 

Figure 3.4 Number of papers on hydrogen production in membrane reactors per year (Till May 2014). Database scopus (www.scopus.com)...

In some States, SL-2 corresponds to a level with a probability of being exceeded in the range 1 x 10 to 1 x 10 (mean values) or 1 x 10 to 1 x 10 (median) f>er reactor per year and SL-1 corresponds to a level with a probabUity of being exceeded of 1 X 10 (mean value) per reactor per year. 

The authors of WASH-1400 concluded that the risk of core meltdown was 1 in 20,000 per reactor per year a risk level that was considered to be acceptably small. Around the same time the report was issued, the largest nuclear plant in the United States, in Browns Ferry, Alabama, was set on fire and temporarily put out of commission by a worker using a candle to check for air leaks. Core meltdown was narrowly averted. Needless to say, such an event had not been considered in WASH-1400. 

The targeted probability of unacceptable radioactivity release beyond the plant boundary is less than 10 per reactor per year. 

The assessed value of the probability of beyond design basis accidents with the above dose limits shall not exceed 10 for the reactor per year ... 

In some States an acceptably small probability of an event generating an unacceptable radioactive release is defined as about 1(T per reactor per year for a new nuclear power plant. 

In some States a pressure-load curve is provided without reference to the originating source. It has to be applied to all the exposed structures. At the preliminary stage of the project, this curve can be taken as standard minimum load. However, when a site has been chosen, it should be verified that the incoming pressure wave produced by explosive sources located in the vicinity of the site does not exceed the standard pressure wave, or that the probability of exceeding this value belongs to the residual risk (10 per reactor per year). 

The unit Kureha operated at Nakoso to process 120,000 metric tons per year of naphtha produces a mix of acetylene and ethylene at a 1 1 ratio. Kureha s development work was directed toward producing ethylene from cmde oil. Their work showed that at extreme operating conditions, 2000°C and short residence time, appreciable acetylene production was possible. In the process, cmde oil or naphtha is sprayed with superheated steam into the specially designed reactor. The steam is superheated to 2000°C in refractory lined, pebble bed regenerative-type heaters. A pair of the heaters are used with countercurrent flows of combustion gas and steam to alternately heat the refractory and produce the superheated steam. In addition to the acetylene and ethylene products, the process produces a variety of by-products including pitch, tars, and oils rich in naphthalene. One of the important attributes of this type of reactor is its abiUty to produce variable quantities of ethylene as a coproduct by dropping the reaction temperature (20—22). 

Data for the production and sales of maleic anhydride and fumaric acid ia the United States between 1979 and 1992 are shown ia Table 5. Production of maleic anhydride during this time grew - 2% on average per year. Production of fumaric acid has declined during the same period as customers have switched to the less cosdy maleic anhydride when possible. All production of maleic anhydride in the United States in 1992 was from butane-based plants which used fixed-bed reactor technology as shown in Table 6. The number of fumaric acid producers has been reduced considerably since the early 1980s with only two producers left in the United States in 1992 as shown in Table 6. Pfizer shut down its fumaric acid plant at the end of 1993. However, Bartek of Canada will start up an expanded fumaric acid faciUty to supply the North American market for both their own and Huntsman s requirements. 

LDPE is produced in either a stirred autoclave or a tubular reactor total domestic production, divided between the two systems at 45% for tubular and 55% for autoclave, is estimated to be 3.4 million metric tons per year (5). Neither process has gained a clear advantage over the other, although all new or added capacity production in the 1990s has been through the autoclave. 

Silicones, an important item of commerce, are widely available commercially (9,494). The principal manufacturers of silicone operate direct-process reactors to produce dimethyl dichi orosilane and, ultimately, polydimethyl siloxane. Typical plants produce more than 450 t per year. The siUcone industry is a global enterprise in the 1990s, with principal producers in the United States (Dow Coming, GE, and OSi), Europe (Wacker Chemie, Hbls, Rhc ne-Poulenc, and Bayer), and Southeast Asia (Shin-Etsu, Toshiba SiUcones, and Dow Coming, Japan). Table 15 Hsts the approximate sales of the principal producers for 1991. 

The RR developed by the author at UCC was the only one that had a high recycle rate with a reasonably known internal flow (Berty, 1969). This original reactor was named later after the author as the Berty Reactor . Over five hundred of these have been in use around the world over the last 30 years. The use of Berty reactors for ethylene oxide process improvement alone has resulted in 300 million pounds per year increase in production, without addition of new facilities (Mason, 1966). Similar improvements are possible with many other catalytic processes. In recent years a new blower design, a labyrinth seal between the blower and catalyst basket, and a better drive resulted in an even better reactor that has the registered trade name of ROTOBERTY . ... 

Hoechst Celanese officials said it was too early to decide whether to rebuild the butane reactor, install a newer methanol-to-acetic acid process, or start up a standby acetic acid facility at Hay City, TX, to replace the idled 350-million-lb per year acetic acid plant. 

The mean frequencies of events damaging more than 5% of the reactor core per year were found to be Internal Events 6.7E-5, Fire 1.7E-5, Seismic 1.7E-4, and total 2,5E-4. Thus, within the range of U. S. commercial light water reactors The core damage frequency itself, is only part of the story because many N-Reactor accident sequences damage only a small fraction of the core. The... 

An Aging Failure Survey of LWR Safely Systems and Components Nuclear 4 Tables of component failures per years of service Light Water Reactor Safety System Components 93. 

Of course, the benefits of microfabricated and stractured reactors are also applicable to even larger scale processes. For example, Evonik s development of a production-scale microstructured reactor for vinyl acetate manufacture (150000t per annum) claims depreciation and operating cost savings of 3 million per year [25]. 

Iron has been the dominant structural material of modem times, and despite the growth in importance of aluminum and plastics, iron still ranks first in total use. Worldwide production of steel (iron strengthened by additives) is on the order of 700 million tons per year. The most important iron ores are two oxides, hematite (Fc2 O3) and magnetite (Fc3 O4). The production of iron from its ores involves several chemical processes that take place in a blast furnace. As shown in Figure 20-22. this is an enormous chemical reactor where heating, reduction, and purification all occur together. 

Taking all this into consideration, the actual output of isolated and purified products ranges from 1 to 80 kg per lilic of reactor volume per year. 

---