Total reflectivity, directional

Infrared spectra of zeolitic samples can be measured in several different modes. These include transmission, diffuse reflectance, attenuated total internal reflection (ATR) and emission. Transmission and diffuse reflectance are by far the most widely used of these techniques. In the transmission mode, the sample is placed directly in the infrared beam of the instrument and the light passing through or transmitted is measured by the detector. This transmitted signal (T) is ratioed to the open beam (no sample) signal (To) to get the transmission spectrum of the sample. The transmission spectrum is converted to an absorbance spectrum ... 

Analogous considerations apply, for example, to the calculation of second-order properties, for which a very similar computational problem must be addressed. For typical applications this step constitutes 95-100% of the total computational effort, and a successful parallelization will therefore reflect directly on overall performance. 

One of the most significant uses of LMI sources in connection with SIMS of organic compounds may be as probes in performing measurements of secondary particle yields. Such measurements are important for understanding the processes of secondary ion emission from solid and liquid organic samples. Total particle yields reflect directly the dynamical aspects of emission processes variations in primary beam energy, incident flux density, and primary particle mass, for example, are all manifested in changes in total particle yields. The ratio of secondary ion yield to total particle yield and the ratio of secondary ion yields from two different species can be sensitive, quantitative monitors of the chemistry and kinetics, respectively, of ionization processes. 

Muscle force can be elicited by nerve stimulation to test both muscle function and the integrity of the nerve-muscle connection or by direct muscle stimulation to evaluate only muscle contractile independent of the synapse. The latter measure reflects the total force that the muscle is able to generate, if it is significandy... 

In Europe, approximately 69 million tons of oil was used as the raw material for the chemical industry in 2008 [1], The total oil demand in Europe was 703 million tons in that year [2], In contrast, only approximately 5% of all industry feedstock is of renewable origin [3], Most of this reflects direct use of natural products like cotton for textiles, wood pulp for papermaking, or different oils for special applications and for oleochemistry in general (detergents, lubricants, etc.) [3],... 

Substantial increase in hydrophobicity is found in fluorine-treated and subsequently 600°C-calcined samples. Such an increase in hydrophobicity is reflected directly in the water adsorption data, delta hexane loading and n-butanol shake test results. The OH region I. R. spectra for these treated materials also show substantial to total loss of hydroxyl groups. The treated erionite sample, however, fails to show either an increase in delta hexane... 

Subject to the restrictions of no scatter and diffuse surface emission and reflection, the above equations are the most general matrix statement possible for the zone method. When P = 1, the directed exchange areas all reduce to the total exchange areas for a single gray gas. If, in addition, K = 0, the much simpler case of radiative transfer in a transparent medium results. If, in addition, all surface zones are black, the direct, total, and directed exchange areas are all identical. 

A very long cylinder is struck by radiation that comes from a single direction, perpendicular to its axis (parallel directed radiation). The surface of the cylinder behaves like a grey radiator with the directional total emissivity = 0.85 cos/ . Calculate the reflected fraction of the incident radiative power. 

The ions in the soil solution constitutes the active acidity and are measured directly as soil pH values. On the other hand the adsorbed H+ ions held on exchange sites are not subject to pH measurements are termed as reserve acidity , both the forms contribute to soil acidity. Thus soil pH does not reflect the total acidity. However a suitable index which takes into account the reserve acidity of soil is the lime potential, which is calculated as follows ... 

An aqueous natural system needs to be characterized by both intensity and capacity factors. Intensity factors (e.g., pH) reflect activities of free species capacity factors, on the other hand, reflect the total concentration of relevant species (e.g., total acidity). A capacity factor can be described as a conservative property that is indirectly temperature- and pressure-dependent while an intensity factor is directly dependent on temperature and pressure. Thus for acid-base systems, pH is an intensity factor while alkalinity, or the acid neutralizing capacity, is a capacity factor. An important characteristic of any aqueous system is the total concentrations of the components of interest... 

Reflectance techniques can be used for samples which are difficult to analyse by normal transmittance methods. Reflectance methods can be divided into two categories internal reflectance measurements can be made by using an attenuated total reflectance (ATR) ceil in contact with the sample, while there are also external reflectance measurements which involve an infrared beam being reflected directly from the sample surface. 

To compute atmospheric photochemical reaction rates it is necessary to determine the total light intensity incident on a given volume of air, from all directions. The light intensity impacting a volume of air includes not only direct solar radiation, but light, either direct from the Sun or reflected from the Earth s surface, that is scattered into the volume by gases and particles, as well as light reflected directly from the Earth s surface. 

The k 3 deduced for reaction (11) using ternary association data and adopting a canonical value for the radiative lifetime of the (CH5 ) of 1 ms is in acceptable agreement with the directly measured k g,]. The magnitudes of k3 vary over orders-of-magnitude for the various reactants and these variations are reflected directly into the deduced k acl values. Such studies indicate which radiative association reactions are important to interstellar molecular synthesis. The experimentally obtained variation of k3 with temperature generally agrees with theoretical predictions, i.e. k3 varies as, where r is the total... 

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