Psychiatry lithium

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Cornelius JR, Salloum IM, EhlerJG, et al Fluoxetine in depressed alcoholics a doubleblind, placebo-controlled trial. Arch Gen Psychiatry 54 700—705, 1997 Cornelius JR, Salloum IM, Haskett RF, et al Fluoxetine versus placebo for the marijuana use of depressed alcoholics. Addict Behav 24 111—114, 1999 Cui S-S, Bowen RC, Gu G-B, et al Prevention of cannabinoid withdrawal syndrome by lithium involvement of oxytocinergic neuronal activation. J Neurosci 21 9867— 9876, 2001... 

Bowden CL, Calabrese JR, McElroy SL, et al (2000). A randomised, placebo-controlled 12-month trial of divalproex and lithium in treatment of outpatients with bipolar I disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 57, 481—9. 

Johnson RE, McFarland BH (1996). Lithium use and discontinuation in a health maintenance organisation. Am J Psychiatry 153, 993-1000. 

Keck PE, Nabulsi AA, Taylor JL, et al (1996b). A pharmacoeconomic model of divalproex vs. lithium in the acute and prophylactic treatment of bipolar I disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 57> 213-22. 

Maj M, Pirozzi R, Magliano L, et al (1998). Longterm outcome of lithium prophylaxis in bipolar disorder 5-year prospective study of 402 patients a lithium clinic. Am J Psychiatry 155,30-5. 

Geddes JR, Burgess S, Hawton K, et al. Long-term lithium therapy for bipolar disorder systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Am J Psychiatry 2004 161 217-222. 

Del Zompo, M., Ardau, R., Palmas, M. A. etal. (1999). Lithium response association study with two candidate genes. Mol. Psychiatry, 4(1), S66-S67. 

Mendlewicz, J., Verbanck, P., Linkowski, P. Wilmotte, J. (1978). Lithium accumulation in erythrocytes of manic-depressive patients an in vivo twin study. Br. J. Psychiatry, 133,436-44. 

Serretti, A., Lilli, R., Lorenzi, C. etal. (1999). Dopamine receptor D2 and D4 genes, GABA(A) alpha-1 subunit genes and response to lithium prophylaxis in mood disorders. Psychiatry Res., 87, 7-19. 

Shaldubina, A., Agam, G. Belmaker, R. H. (2001). The mechanism of lithium action state of the art, ten years later. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry, 25, 855-66. 

Turecki, G., Grof, R, Grof, E. etal. (2001). Mapping susceptibility genes for bipolar disorder a pharmacogenetic approach based on excellent response to lithium. Mol. Psychiatry, 6, 570-8. 

The clinical significance of this ethnic difference for psychiatry was found later. A study examining lithium tolerability found more side effects in African American patients with high RBC/plasma ratio even when the lithium levels were in the therapeutic range (Strickland etal., 1995). It is not known whether African Americans require lower doses and will respond with lower plasma levels. We do know that African Americans with mood disorders are less likely to be prescribed lithium either as primary treatment or adjunctive therapy (Valenstein etal., 2006 Kilbourne 8c Pincus, 2006). It is unknown as to whether the lack of tolerability at usual therapeutic doses is a factor. 

Okpaku, S., Frazer, A. Mendels, J. (2005). A pilot study of racial differences in erythrocyte lithium transport. Am.. Psychiatry, 137, 120-1. 

Strickland, T. L., Lin, K. M., Fu, P., Anderson, D. et al. (1995). Comparison of lithium ratio between African-American and Caucasian bipolar patients. Biol. Psychiatry, 37, 325-30. 

Lee, S. (1993). Side effect of chronic lithium therapy in Hong Kong Chinese an ethnopsychiatric perspective. Cult. Med. Psychiatry, 17, 301-20. 

Manji HK, Chen G. Lithium upregu-lates the cytoprotective protein bcl-2 in vitro and in the CNS in vivo, a role for neurotrophic and neuroprotective effects in manic-depressive illness. J Clin Psychiatry 2000 61 82-96. 

Moore GJ, Hasanat K, Chen G, Seraji-Bozorgzad N, Wilds IB, Faulk MW, Koch S, Jolkovsky L, Manji HK. Lithium Increases N-Acetyl-Aspartate in the Human Brain In Vivo Evidence in Support of bcl-2 s Neurotrophic Effects. Biol Psychiatry 2000 48 1-8. 

Hua LV, G.M., Warsh JJ, Li PP. Lithium regulation of aldolase A expression in the rat frontal cortex identification by differential display. Biol Psychiatry 2000 48 58-64. 

Jope, R. S. Anti-bipolar therapy mechanism of action of lithium. Mol. Psychiatry 4 117-128,1999. 

It can be argued that the introduction of lithium salts into the practice of psychiatry in 1949 heralded the beginning of psychopharmacology, as it predated the discovery of chlorpromazine, imipramine, monoamine oxidase inhibitors and resperine. Lithium came into clinical use serendipitously, the Australian psychiatrist Cade having by chance given it to a small group of manic patients and found that it had beneficial effects. 

L.FI. Price, D.S. Charney, G.R. Fleninger, Efficacy of lithium-tranylcypromine treatment in refractory depressison, Am. J. Psychiatry 142 (1985) 619-623. 

Fetner, H.H. and Geller, B. (1992) Lithium and tricyclic antidepressants. Psychiatry Clin North Am 15 223-224. 

Kowatch, R.A., Suppes, T., Carmody, T.J., Bucci, J.P., Hume, J.H., Kromelis, M., Emslie, G.J., Weinberg, W.A., and Rush, A.J. (2000) Effect size of lithium, divalproex sodium, and carbama-zepine in children and adolescents with bipolar disorder. / Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 39 713-720. 

Manji, H.K., Moore, G.J., and Chen, G. (1999) Lithium at 50 have the neuroprotective effects of this unique cation been overlooked Biol Psychiatry 46 929-940. 

Moore, G.J., Bebchuk, J.M., Hasanat, K., Chen, G., Seraji-Bozorgzad, N., Wilds, I.B., Faulk, M.W., Koch, S., Glitz, D.A., Jolkovsky, L., and Manji, H.K. (2000b) Lithium increases5N-acetyl-aspartate in the human brain in vivo evidence in support of bcl-2 s neurotrophic effects Biol Psychiatry 48 1-8. 

Campbell, M., Adams, P.B., Small, A.M., Kafantaris, V., Silva, R.R., Shell, J., Perry, R., and Overall, J.E. (1995) Lithium in hospitalized aggressive children with conduct disorder a double-blind and placebo-controlled study. / Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 34 445-453. [published erratum appears in / Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1995 34(5) 694]. ... 

Cooper, T.B., and Simpson, G.M. (1976) The 24-hour lithium level as a prognosticator of dosage requirements a 2-year follow-up study. Am J Psychiatry 133 440-443. 

Geller, B., Cooper, T.B., Sun, K., Zimerman, B., Frazier, J., Williams, M., and Heath, J. (1998a) Double-blind and placebo-controlled study of lithium for adolescent bipolar disorders with secondary substance dependency. / Am Acad Child Adoles Psychiatry 37 171-178. 

Hagino, O.R., Weller, E.B., Weller, R.A., Washing, D., Fristad, M.A., and Kontras, S.B. Untoward effects of lithium treatment in children aged four through six years. / Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 34 1584-1590. 

Kleiner, J., Altshuler, L., Hendrick, V, and Hershman, J.M. (1999) Lithium-induced subclinical hypothyroidism review of the literature and guidelines for treatment. / Clin Psychiatry 60 249-255. 

Lenox, R.H. and Hahn, C.G. (2000) Overview of the mechanism of action of lithium in the brain fifty-year update. / Clm Psychiatry 61 5-15. 

M. (2000) A double-blind placebo-controlled study of lithium in hospitalized aggtessive children and adolescents with conduct dis-otdet. Arch Gen Psychiatry 57 649-654. 

Rifkin, A., Karajgi, B., Dicker, R., Perl, E., Boppana, V., Hasan, N., and Pollack, S. (1997) Lithium treatment of conduct disorders in adolescents. Am Psychiatry 154 554-555. 

Soares, J.C., Chen, G., Dippold, C.S., Wells, K.F., Frank, E., Kupfer, D.J., Manji, H.K., and Mallinger, A.G. (2000) Concurrent measures of protein kinase C and phosphoinositides in lithium-treated bipolar patients and healthy individuals a preliminary study. Psychiatry Res 95 109-118. 

Strober, M., Morrell, W., Lampert, C., and Burroughs,/. (1990) Relapse following discontinuation of lithium maintenance therapy in adolescents with bipolar I illness a naturalistic study. Am J Psychiatry 147 457—461. 

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