Lithium action

Phiel, C.J. Klein, P.S. (2001). Molecular targets of lithium action. Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol., 41, 789-813. 

Shaldubina, A., Agam, G. Belmaker, R. H. (2001). The mechanism of lithium action state of the art, ten years later. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry, 25, 855-66. 

Newer uses have appeared in the treatment of viral diseases including AIDS, alteration of the immune response, and cancer. The lithium salt of 7-linolenic acid (LiGLA) has a significant anticancer effect against certain cancers. The neurochemical basis for lithium action is difficult to define. Lithium carbonate induces a wide range of intra- and extracellular changes—most emphasis has been naturally on the similarities with Na/K/Ca/Mg ions. Lithium selectively interferes with the inositol lipid cycle, representing a unified hypothesis of action. The biochemistry, distribution, and cellular localization of lithium has been extensively documented. 

Berry, G.T., Buccafusca, R., Greer, J.J., and Eccleston, E., 2004, Phosphoinositide deficiency due to inositol depletion is not a mechanism of lithium action in brain. Mol. Genet. Metab. 82 87-92. 

Lithium selectively interferes with the inositol lipid cycle (100) and this is the basis for a proposal of a unifying hypothesis for lithium actions (96). Administration of lithium to rats (10 mmol/kg) resulted in a reduction in brain myoinositol and an increase in the reaction substrate inositol-l-phosphate (101). The magnesium-dependent enzyme inositol monophosphate phosphatase, which catalyzes the conversion of inositol monophosphates to inositol, was totally inhibited in rat mammary gland by high concentrations of lithium (250 mM) and partially inhibited by lower concentrations (2 mAf) (102). At clinically relevant concentrations lithium has been shown to inhibit inositol monophosphate phosphatase in bovine brain (K, = 0.8 mM) by substi-... 

One of the problems in the study of lithium action is the lack of precision in localisation of the ion and in the measurement of its movements between cells and between tissues. This lack of precision arises partly because lithium is a very mobile ion, partly because of its widespread distribution in the body, and partly because of the difficulties of lithium analysis. Analytical problems generally stem... 

Lithium selectively interferes with the inositol lipid cycle,which is the basis for the proposal of a unifying hypothesis for lithium actions. 21122 reduces the cell concentrations of myoinositol, which would otherwise be converted to phosphatidylinositol this attenuates the response to external stimuli. - ... 

Lenox RH, Wang L. Molecular basis of lithium action integration of lithium-responsive signaling and gene expression networks. Mol Psychiatry 2003 8 135-144. 

J.-M. Beaulieu, A 3-arrestin 2 signaling complex mediates lithium action on behavior. Cell, 2005 A. Bechara, H. Damasio, A.R. Damasio. Emotion, Decision Making and the Orbitofrontal Cortex. Oxford University Press, 2000. 

El-Mallakh RS. Lithium actions and mechanisms. Washington, DC American Psychiatric Press 1996. 

Trimethylene dibromide (Section 111,35) is easily prepared from commercial trimethj lene glycol, whilst hexamethylene dibromide (1 O dibromohexane) is obtained by the red P - Br reaction upon the glycol 1 6-hexanediol is prepared by the reduction of diethyl adipate (sodium and alcohol lithium aluminium hydride or copper-chromium oxide and hydrogen under pressure). Penta-methylene dibromide (1 5-dibromopentane) is readily produced by the red P-Brj method from the commercially available 1 5 pentanediol or tetra-hydropyran (Section 111,37). Pentamethylene dibromide is also formed by the action of phosphorus pentabromide upon benzoyl piperidine (I) (from benzoyl chloride and piperidine) ... 

Potassium and sodium borohydride show greater selectivity in action than lithium aluminium hydride thus ketones or aldehydes may be reduced to alcohols whilst the cyano, nitro, amido and carbalkoxy groups remain unaffected. Furthermore, the reagent may be used in aqueous or aqueous-alcoholic solution. One simple application of its use will be described, viz., the reduction of m-nitrobenzaldehyde to m-nitrobenzyl alcohol ... 

Hydroxyalkylthiazoles are also obtained by cyclization or from alkoxyalkyl-thiazoles by hydrolysis (36, 44, 45, 52, 55-57) and by lithium aluminium hydride reduction of the esters of thiazolecarboxylic acids (58-60) or of the thiazoleacetic adds. The Cannizzaro reaction of 4-thiazolealdehyde gives 4-(hydroxymethyl)-thiazole (53). The main reactions of hydroxyalkyl thiazoles are the synthesis of halogenated derivatives by the action of hydrobroraic acid (55, 61-63), thionyl chloride (44, 45, 63-66), phosphoryl chloride (52, 62, 67), phosphorus penta-chloride (58), tribromide (38, 68), esterification (58, 68-71), and elimination that leads to the alkenylthiazoles (49, 72). 

The action of redox metal promoters with MEKP appears to be highly specific. Cobalt salts appear to be a unique component of commercial redox systems, although vanadium appears to provide similar activity with MEKP. Cobalt activity can be supplemented by potassium and 2inc naphthenates in systems requiring low cured resin color lithium and lead naphthenates also act in a similar role. Quaternary ammonium salts (14) and tertiary amines accelerate the reaction rate of redox catalyst systems. The tertiary amines form beneficial complexes with the cobalt promoters, faciUtating the transition to the lower oxidation state. Copper naphthenate exerts a unique influence over cure rate in redox systems and is used widely to delay cure and reduce exotherm development during the cross-linking reaction. 

Selenium and selenium compounds are also used in electroless nickel-plating baths, delayed-action blasting caps, lithium batteries, xeroradiography, cyanine- and noncyanine-type dyes, thin-film field effect transistors (FET), thin-film lasers, and fire-resistant functional fluids in aeronautics (see... 

Lithium. In the lithium carbonate treatment of certain psychotic states, a low incidence (3.6%) of hypothyroidism and goiter production have been observed as side effects (6,36) (see Psychopharmacologicalagents). It has been proposed that the mechanism of this action is the inhibition of adenyl cyclase. Lithium salts have not found general acceptance in the treatment of hyperthyroidism (see Lithiumand lithium compounds). 

Lithium Hypochlorite. Similar in action to other hypochlorites, this chemical is used to a small extent. It is more expensive than sodium and calcium hypochlorite. 

The concentration dependence of iron corrosion in potassium chloride [7447-40-7] sodium chloride [7647-14-5] and lithium chloride [7447-44-8] solutions is shown in Figure 5 (21). In all three cases there is a maximum in corrosion rate. For NaCl this maximum is at approximately 0.5 Ai (about 3 wt %). Oxygen solubiUty decreases with increasing salt concentration, thus the lower corrosion rate at higher salt concentrations. The initial iacrease in the iron corrosion rate is related to the action of the chloride ion in concert with oxygen. The corrosion rate of iron reaches a maximum at ca 70°C. As for salt concentration, the increased rate of chemical reaction achieved with increased temperature is balanced by a decrease in oxygen solubiUty. 

The relatively simple study of fluorescence and phosphorescence (based on the action of colour centres) has nowadays extended to nonlinear optical crystals, in which the refractive index is sensitive to the light intensity or (in the photorefractive variety (Agullo-Lopez 1994) also to its spatial variation) a range of crystals, the stereotype of which is lithium niobate, is now used. 

Trifluoromethyl thiirane is formed by the action of tris(diethylamino)-phosphineon l-chloromethyl-2,2,2-trifluoroethyldisulfide [S2] (equation 73) Difluoromethyl phenyl selenide is prepared by treatment of lithium phenyl-selemde with chlorodifluoroniethane via a carbene mechanism [Si] (equation 44) Bis(2,2,2-trifluoroethyl)diselenide is formed in the reaction of 2,2,2-trifluoroethyl mesylate with lithium diselenide [84] (equation 74). 

Action of alkali amides and alkyl- and aryl-lithiums on mono-halogeno aromatic compounds,... 

The addition of lithium acetylene 184 (obtained from Z-methoxybut-l-en-3-yne) to 5-valerolactones at -78°C in THF gives the ketoalcohol 188 (83TL5303 90JOC5894). The conversion of the latter to spiroketal 189 is accomplished under the action of 30% perchloric acid in methylene chloride, yield 58% (90JOC5894). 

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