Protein microsystem

The single protein with its hydration shell will be referred to as the protein-microsystem , while the collective sum of protein microsystems will be addressed as the protein-macrosystem . 

Thus, the enthalpy Hp of the protein-macrosystem can be obtained, if the enthalpy of the protein solution, H, and the enthalpy of the pure buffer, Hb, can be determined. The enthalpy value Hp corresponds to an ensemble average of the protein-macrosystem. Due to ergodicity the value is also equivalent to the time average behaviour the single protein-microsystem [19]. Therefore we may drop the differentiation between the... 

The Boltzmann constant ks in eq. 35 is valid for the single protein-microsystem. It must be replaced by R for the determination of molar quantities. In the following we will suppress the index p for the protein. Cp as well as H will refer to the protein only. 

Microchip arrays for parallel binding and detection of DNA or proteins for drug discovery and different clinical microsystems are under development [114]. 

Electrophoretic microfluidic chips feature a number of microreactor characteristics and have been used for conducting chemical and biochemical reactions in channels and microfabricated chambers, mixing reagents, microextraction and microdialysis, post- and preseparation derivatizations, etc. The most recent achievements are reviewed in Ref. 63 and other similar publications. These integrated microdevices perform PCR amplification, cell sorting, enzymatic assays, protein digestion, affinity-based assays, etc. In this section we describe such integrated microsystems and the most recent advances in this field. 

Because protein and cellulosic fibers are buried in contact with copper metal objects, a chemical microsystem is established whereby the degradation of the fiber and the corrosion of the metal interact physically and chemically. As the corrosion solution impregnates and swells the fibers, polymer molecules in amorphous areas are spread apart but are prevented from complete dissolution by the resistant crystalline segments. Copper ion from the corrosion solution is bound to the polymers (Figure 5). As the fiber degrades and more end groups are formed, more copper is bound. Polymers expand further apart as interchain forces are reduced. 

Electric fields can be used, for instance, to reduce fouling phenomena in systems involving electrically charged macromolecules (e.g., proteins). In microsystems used for capillary zone electrophoresis an external electric field applied across the capillary tube induces electrostatic repulsion between the macromolecules and the inner surface. The reduced adsorption of macromolecules enhances separation resolution and efficiency. 

WeiB T, Igel G, and Urban G (2007) Chip-based scanning nano-calorimeter for protein stability analysis in biosensor membranes 1761-1764. In Transducers Solid-State Sensors, Actuators and Microsystems, Lyon, FR... 

Tlie application of microsystems ( biochips ) with highly integrated functions covers the analysis of DNA, protein, DNA-RNA and DNA-protein interactions, biochemical assays, and stracture and expression studies. 

Medical applications Fluorescence is widely used in the analysis of various compounds present in cells, liver, kidney, etc. The sensitivity and selectivity of PL in many microsystems allows the professionals to estimate amino acids, proteins, and nucleic acid in medical research. 

Literature on enzyme microreactors for chemical synthesis is scarce. There is abundant literature, however, on the use of enzymes in microsystems for purposes of DNA analysis, e.g. using the polymerase chain reaction discussed before or DNA restriction fragment analysis [81], for proteomics, such as tryptic digestion of proteins with the enzyme free in solution [82], with trypsin-coated beads trapped in a microreactor [83] or trypsin immobilized on a porous polymer monolith (in a fused-silica capillary) [84]. Also, enzyme microreaction devices have been used extensively for medical diagnostics or immunoassays, e.g. using porous silicon as a support for immobilized enzymes [85]. 

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