Prorocentrum lima Okadaic acid

The toxins responsible for DSP include a series of polyether molecules (including okadaic acid and six derivatives of dinophysistoxin), four pecteno-toxins (polyether lactones), and yessotoxins (including two sulfate esters that resemble brevetoxins) (Murata, 1982 Murata, 1987 Tachibana et al., 1981 Yasumoto, 1989). Diarrhetic shellfish poisons are produced primarily by dinoflagellates from the genera Dinophysis, although Prorocentrum lima also produces both okadaic acid and dinophysistoxin-1 (Heredia-Tapia et al., 2002). 

Fluorescence may by induced using labeled mono- or polyclonal antibodies raised against the compound of interest. This technique has been used successfully to detect the presence of okadaic acid in cultures of Prorocentrum lima, and, further, to estimate quantities of the compound in individual cells.110 Immunofluoresence in combination with thin layer chromatography and ELISA techniques have also been used to detect multiple haptens in mycotoxin families.111112... 

Murakami, Y, Oshima, Y, and Yasumoto, T. 1982. Identification of okadaic acid as atoxic component of a marine dinoflagellate Prorocentrum lima. BullJapan Soc Sci Fish 48(1), 69-72. 

Norte, M., Padilla, A., Fernandez, XX, and Souto, M.L. 1994. Structural determination and biosynthetic origin of two ester derivatives of okadaic acid isolated from Prorocentrum lima. Tetrahedron 50(30), 9175-9180. 

Okadaic acid 11 is a potent and specific inhibitor of protein phosphatases produced by the dinoflagellates Prorocentrum lima, Dinophysisfortii, and Dirwphysis accuminata. It accumulates in bivalves and is one of the main toxins responsible for diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) (11). It has a highly unusual biosynthesis that has generated a lot of speculation because of the presence of isolated acetate chain methyl carbon atoms (10). Okadaic acid is a potent inhibitor of protein phosphatase A (11). 

Hu, T. et al.. New diol ester (of okadaic acid) isolated from cultures of Prorocentrum lima and Prorocentrum concavum, J. Nat. Prod., 55,1631, 1992. 

Rausch de Traubenberg, C. andMorlaix, M., Evidence of okadaic acid release into extracellular medium in cultures of Prorocentrum lima (Erhenberg) Dodge, in Harmful Marine Algal Blooms, Lassns, P. et al., Eds., Lavoisier Intercept Ltd, Paris, 1995, 493. 

Zhou, J. and Fritz, L., Okadaic acid antibody localizes to chloroplasts in the DSP-toxin producing dinoflagellates Prorocentrum lima and Prorocentrum maculosum, Phycologia, 33, 455, 1994. Cembella, A.D., Occurrence of okadaic acid, a major diarrhetic shellfish toxin, in natural populations of Dinophysis spp. from the eastern of North America, J. Appl. Phycol, 1, 307, 1989. 

It has also been demonstrated that styrene—DVB copolymer resins Sepabeads SP825, Sepabeads SP850, Optipore L-493, Diaion HP-20, and Amberlite XAD-4, of which the first three have a surface area of 1000 m /g and might be attributed to hypercrosshnked sorbents, accumulate lipophilic marine toxins okadaic acid and dinophysistoxin-1 from Prorocentrum lima cultures [298]. The procedure developed in the study represents a simple and efficient method suitable for solid-phase adsorption toxin tracking in both cultural fiquids and natural waters. The toxins are eluted from the resins with methanol and subjected to LC-MS analysis. 

New esters of okadaic acid were obtained by culture of the species Prorocentrum lima and P. belizeanum (Suarez-Gomez et al, 2005). Certain polar esters are produced naturally by the diatom Thalassiosira weissjlogii, this transformation appearing as a natural means of detoxification (Hu et al, 1999a). 

Fernandez, J.J., Suarez-Gomez, B., Souto, M.L., and Norte, M. (2003) Identification of new okadaic acid derivatives from laboratory cultures of Prorocentrum lima.]. Nat. Prod., 66,1294—1296. 

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