Prorocentrum lima

Dinoflagellates Dinophysis spp., Prorocentrum lima Diatoms Pseudo-nitzschia spp. Dinoflagellates Protoperidinium spp. Epibenthic dinoflagellates Gambierdiscus toxicus Possibly Ostreopsis spp. Coolia spp. or Prorocentrum spp. 

The toxins responsible for DSP include a series of polyether molecules (including okadaic acid and six derivatives of dinophysistoxin), four pecteno-toxins (polyether lactones), and yessotoxins (including two sulfate esters that resemble brevetoxins) (Murata, 1982 Murata, 1987 Tachibana et al., 1981 Yasumoto, 1989). Diarrhetic shellfish poisons are produced primarily by dinoflagellates from the genera Dinophysis, although Prorocentrum lima also produces both okadaic acid and dinophysistoxin-1 (Heredia-Tapia et al., 2002). 

DSP has been reported in Japan and Europe (Kat, 1983 Yasumoto et al., 1978) as well as in India and North and South America (Anne and Yndestad, 1993). Furthermore, although DSP has not been reported in humans, the toxins have been isolated from Prorocentrum lima cultures from the Gulf of California, Mexico (Heredia-Tapia et al., 2002). 

Heredia-Tapia, A., et al.. Isolation of Prorocentrum lima (S5U1. Exuviaella lima) and diarrheic shellfish poisoning (DSP) risk assessment in the Gulf of California, Mexico, Toxicon, 40, 8, 1121, 2002. 

Fluorescence may by induced using labeled mono- or polyclonal antibodies raised against the compound of interest. This technique has been used successfully to detect the presence of okadaic acid in cultures of Prorocentrum lima, and, further, to estimate quantities of the compound in individual cells.110 Immunofluoresence in combination with thin layer chromatography and ELISA techniques have also been used to detect multiple haptens in mycotoxin families.111112... 

Simoni, E, Gaddi, A., Di Paolo, C., Lepri, L., Mancino, A., and Falaschi, A. 2004. Further investigation on blooms of Ostreopsis ovata, Coolia monotis, Prorocentrum lima on the macroalgae of artificial and natural reefs in the Northern Tyrrhenian Sea. Harmful Algae News 26 5-7. 

Murakami, Y, Oshima, Y, and Yasumoto, T. 1982. Identification of okadaic acid as atoxic component of a marine dinoflagellate Prorocentrum lima. BullJapan Soc Sci Fish 48(1), 69-72. 

Norte, M., Padilla, A., Fernandez, XX, and Souto, M.L. 1994. Structural determination and biosynthetic origin of two ester derivatives of okadaic acid isolated from Prorocentrum lima. Tetrahedron 50(30), 9175-9180. 

Quilliam, M.A., Hardstaff, W.R., Ishida, N., McLachlan, XL., Reeves, A.R., Ross, N.W., and Windust, A.X 1996a. Production of diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) toxins by Prorocentrum lima in culture and development of analytical mefliods. In Harmful and Toxic Algal Blooms, ed. Yasumoto, T, Oshima, Y, and Fukuyo. Y.I.O.C. of UNESCO, 289-292. 

Okadaic acid 11 is a potent and specific inhibitor of protein phosphatases produced by the dinoflagellates Prorocentrum lima, Dinophysisfortii, and Dirwphysis accuminata. It accumulates in bivalves and is one of the main toxins responsible for diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) (11). It has a highly unusual biosynthesis that has generated a lot of speculation because of the presence of isolated acetate chain methyl carbon atoms (10). Okadaic acid is a potent inhibitor of protein phosphatase A (11). 

Prorocentrolide (Fig. 29, 173) is a 28-membered ring macrolide produced by dinoflagellate Prorocentrum lima [192]. Zooxanthellatoxins A (174) and B are 62-membered ring macrolides isolated from dinoflagellate Symbiodinium sp.. 

Torigoe, K., Murata, M., Yastimoto, T., and Iwashita, T. (1988). Prorocentrolide, a toxic nitrogenous macrocycle from a marine dinoflagellate, Prorocentrum lima. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 110, 7876-7877. 

In March 2002, an outbreak with approximately 40 cases occurred in the Chubut Province, Argentina. Those affected had eaten blue mussels and clams with DSP from the North-Patagonian gulfs. This episode coincided with the presence of the Prorocentrum lima [22],... 

AM Gayoso, N Ciocco. Observations on Prorocentrum lima from North-Patagonian coastal waters (Argentina) associated with a human diarrhoeic disease episode. Harmful Algae News 22 4, 2001. 

FIGURE 10.6 Example LC-MS data generated from Prorocentrum lima culture using an API 4000 LC-MS/MS system in positive electrospray mode, (a) Parent ion scan of the C8 2 OA diol ester showing a parent ammoniated ion (m/z 946.6) and typical in-source fragmentation, (b) Product ion mass spectra of the 946.6 parent ion showing m/z 751 is abundant, (c) Intensity plot of precursor scan data for the m/z 751 product ion. The x-axis is time, the y-axis is m/z and the intensity of the signal is shown by the density of each spot. 1 = m/z 920, ammoniated C6 OA diol ester, 2 = m/z 946, ammoniated C8 2 OA diol ester, 3 = m/z 948, ammoniated C8 l OA diol ester, 4 = m/z 960, ammoniated C9 2 OA diol ester, 5 = m/z 972, ammoniated C10 3 OA diol ester. (Courtesy of Andy Selwood.)... 

Bauder, A. G., CembeUa, A. D., and QuiUiam, M. A. (1996) Dynamics of diarrhetic shellfish toxins from the dinoflageUate. Prorocentrum lima, in the bay scallop, Argopecten irraddians. In Harmful... 

Hu, T, Curtis, J. M., Walter, J. A., and Wright, J. L. C. (1995a) Identification of DTX-4, a new water-soluble phosphatase inhibitor from the toxic dinoflagellate Prorocentrum lima. Journal of the Chemical Society, Chemical Communications, 5, 597. 

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