Pricing in Japan

Rice in Japan is a special case for cereals that normally are not sprayed with fungicides. The rice price in Japan is maintained high by the government and, hence, farmers can afford to spray and all or almost all do spray (Ou, 1). 

In 1957, folic acid was offered at 1.20 per gram. At present it is offered by two American producers at 440 per gram in competition with the Japanese product available at a considerably lower price. In Japan, however, the price is from 45 to 500 per gram. 

It is widely discussed that the selling price of pharmaceuticals in the EU is substantially below that of the same drags in the US due to the ability of each country to directly negotiate prices with the seller. For example, in a 2005 survey of the 150 best selling pharmaceuticals, the prices of these drags varied considerably in Europe in Spain and Italy they were around half of US prices f24, Table IVi. The study also revealed that the situation was different when the prices of biologies were considered. Whereas European priees averaged 88% of US prices, the prices in Japan were almost the same. 

There are a relatively small number of producers of halogenated flame retardants, especially for brominated flame retardants, where three producers account for greater than 80% of world production. Table 10 gives estimates of the volumes of brominated and chlorinated flame retardants used worldwide. Volumes of flame retardants consumed in Japan have been summarized (61). Prices of halogenated flame retardants vary from less than 2.00/kg to as high as 13.00/kg. Cost to the user depends on the level of use of the specific flame retardant and other factors such as the use of stabilizers. 

Globally, there is a small number of basic fluorosihcone producers General Electric Co. and Dow Corning Corp. in the United States, ShinEtsu in Japan, and Wacker Chemie in Germany. Prices tend to be about 55—220/kg and higher depending on the physical form and the application. 

Sucrose Esters. These newer emulsifiers, approved for direct addition in the United States in 1983 (35), ate formed when sucrose is combined with various fatty acids and the resulting emulsion is dehydrated. These additives are odorless and tasteless, and can withstand the retort process. They are used in products when standards of identity do not preclude their use, such as baked goods, baking mixes, dairy product analogues, fto2en dairy desserts and mixes, and whipped milk products (39). High price has limited use in the United States, but these compounds ate used extensively in Japan as emulsifiers in baked goods (40). 

The price of cooker magnetrons at ca 700 W was in the range of several hundred dollars in the 1960s (11). As of the mid-1990s, this price is < 15. Total sales of microwave ovens worldwide exceed 20 x 10 /yr. The majority of homes in Japan and the United States have microwave ovens (94). European homes should foUow before the year 2000 (95). 

Economic Aspects. The North American demand for anhydrous aluminum chloride, estimated to be from 25,000 to 30,000 metric tons per year (9), is divided among the appHcations shown in Figure 2. In 1984 the anhydrous aluminum chloride demand was estimated at 40,000 tons in Western Europe and 9,000 tons in Japan (10). Pricing is heavily dependent on the cost of aluminum metal. The deHvered price of aluminum chloride during the first quarter of 1989 ranged from 0.32/kg for bulk tmddoads to 0.35/kg for small dmms. The North American demand for this catalyst has remained relatively constant over the last 20 years (10). 

In Japan, sulfamic acid is produced and suppHed in crystal form. It is packaged in 25-kg net weight paper bags and in 600-kg, 700-kg, and 750-kg resinous dexible containers. The tmddoad price (fob Japan) is 1—2/kg. Three principal uses of sulfamic acid are in chemical cleaning, as sulfonation reagent, and for use in synthetic sweetener. 

Although benzene prices have escalated in recent years, a concurrent need for butenes for use in alkylates for motor fuel has also increased and butane prices have also escalated. As a result, a search for alternative feedstocks began and Amoco Chemical Co. commercialized a process in 1977 to produce maleic anhydride from butane. A plant in JoHet came on-stream in 1977 with a capacity of 27,000 t/yr (135,136). No new plants have been built in the United States based on butenes since the commercialization of butane to maleic anhydride technology. In Europe and particularly in Japan, however, where butane is in short supply and needs for butenes as alkylation feed are also much less, butenes may become the dominant feedstock (see Maleic anhydride). 

In 1988, cadmium metal production in the United States increased significantly and imports decreased, but exports increased. Dramatic increases in cadmium prices in 1988 were attributed to the tight supply of cadmium worldwide, heavy speculative trading, and the large quantities of cadmium being purchased by the nickel—cadmium battery industry, particularly in Japan. About 30 countries are cadmium producers, led by Russia, Japan, the United States, Canada, Belgium, Germany, and Mexico, which cumulatively represented 64% of the 1988 reported world cadmium production of 19,773 metric tons. 

Excluding Eastern European countries and China where production figures have not been pubHshed, the world production capacity of activated carbon was estimated to be 375,000 metric tons in 1990 (35). The price of most products was 0.70 to 5.50 /kg, but some specialty carbons were more expensive (36). Eorty percent of the production capacity was in the United States, 30% in Western Europe, 20% in Japan, and 10% in other Pacific Rim countries (Table 2). 

Annual worldwide fluorocarbon elastomer usage totals about 7300 metric tons. Approximately 40% of this usage is in the United States, 30% in Europe, and 20% in Japan. Prices in 1991 were 30—110/kg. 

Global consumption of thermoplastic mbbers of all types is estimated at about 600,000 t/yr (51). Of this, 42% was estimated to be consumed in the United States, 39% in Western Europe, and 19% in Japan. At present, the woddwide market is estimated to be divided as follows styrenic block copolymers, 48% hard polymer/elastomer combinations, 26% thermoplastic polyurethanes, 12% thermoplastic polyesters, 4% and others, 9%. The three largest end uses were transportation, 23% footwear, 18% and adhesives, coatings, etc, 16%. The ranges of the hardness values, prices, and specific gravities of commercially available materials are given in Table 4. 

H2S and HCN have likewise led to its use for scrubbing the off-gases of processes where these noxious pollutants are formed. Production statistics are rather sparse but the main production plants are in Europe, which produced some 11 000 tonnes pa in 1990 and the USA, where production is expected to exceed lOOOOtpa in 1995. Other major producers are in Japan ( 5000 tpa) and Canada (2700 tpa in 1990). The 1991 price for technical grade NaC102 in the USA was 2.65/kg. 

These bikes could be a wonderful transportation option, combining the efficiency, quiet and nonpollution of a bicycle with the ease of riding a small motorcycle. For these reasons, electric-assist bikes sell at the rate of over 200,000 per year in Japan. But in the United States, these bikes run up against a cultural barrier. Bicycle enthusiasts, who are less likely to object to their four-figure price tags, do not want a motor and do not want a bike that weighs 60 pounds. Others do not want to be seen riding to work. So U.S. sales have been poor. 

Sion to our assumptions about the initial purchase price and the cost of gasoline. Figure 1 shows the LCC of the hybrid and the conventional car over the ten-year period as a function of the cost of gasoline. When gas prices are approximately 3 per gallon, the two cars cost about the same. This value is referred to as the break-even point. If gas prices reach 3.75 per gallon, the approximate cost in Japan, the hybrid car is more economical. Sensitivity analysis can also be conducted for other input variables, such as initial purchase price, miles driven per year and actual fuel economy. 

In Japan Chlorella spp has been produced for food in continuous aseptic systems in conventional bioreactors. The organisms are grown in the dark as heterotrophs using sucrose (in the form of molasses) or glucose as carbon and energy source. Production has been 2,000-3,000 tonnes per year at a selling price of (US)10-22 kg 1 (1990 prices). This product is sold as a high-value health food. 

At this moment, the price of the used granular PCM exceeds 10 EURO/kg due to the test production stage. Our calculation showed the cost payback time can be less than 10 years when the PCM cost would be reduced to 4 EURO/kg under the electrical utility rate condition in Japan. Further cost reduction will be needed to promote the actual system. In addition we have to care of flammability of paraffin wax as PCM in use of inside the buildings. Fortunately, PCM is placed under the OA floor board made of fireproof cement-mortal and above the concrete slab in this system. It may not have any problems under the Fire Defense Law in Japan. However, further development of noninflammable PCM granules, for example micro encapsulation of mixture of inorganic and organic PCM, is required. 

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