Prices, output

The composition of these effects on prices, output and profits is shown in Figures 1-5. 

Costs are related to material prices, output speeds, wastage, machine depreciation, downtimes, etc. (see below). Depending on the choice of material, blister packs of the push-through variety can be as economical as glass bottles in quantities up to around ninety items per pack. At quantities below twenty-five items, there are positive cost advantages in most cases. Both these comments must be accepted as rather general statements—the actual break-even point has to be calculated for each set of circumstances. The above indications assume that both a glass bottle and the blisters have to be packed into cartons, with a CRC fitted to the bottle pack. 

Several utility-scale demonstration facilities having power outputs in the 300-MW class have been constmcted in the United States and Europe. These started accumulating operating experience in 1995 and 1996. Other IGCC plants have been constmcted, including units fueled by petroleum coke and refinery bottoms. Advanced 500-MW class IGCC plants based around the latest heavy-duty combustion turbines are expected to be priced competitively with new pulverized-coal-fined plants utilising scmbbers. 

Crude Tar. Current world output of crude tar is estimated at between 11 and 12 x 10 t/yr. Table 8 gives such details as are available. The amount distilled is about 10 x 10 t/yr. Production of low temperature tar included in the U.K. total for 1994 was 35,000 t at its 2enith 203,000 t were produced in 1975. World production of all coal tar in 1975 was estimated at 17.3 x 10 t. The quantity of tar distilled at five yearly intervals since 1984 is shown in Table 9. Some comparative figures for the prices of coal-tar bulk products for 1982 and 1994 are given in Table 10. 

The United States consumed 1500 metric tons of bismuth in 1988 and exported 147 t (1). The average domestic dealer price was 12.74/kg. The world mine output, excluding the United States, was estimated to be 2770 t in 1988 the world refinery production was estimated as 3510 t. Of the bismuth consumed in the United States, 679 t was used for industrial and laboratory chemicals, cosmetics (qv), and pharmaceuticals (qv) 333 t for fusible alloys 493 t for metaHurgical additives 12 t for other alloys and 15 t for miscellaneous purposes. 

The U.S. chemical industry achieved an annual reduction of 4.2% in energy input per unit of output for the period 1975—1985 (2). This higher reduction resulted from cost optimization, the tradeoff of increased capital for reduced energy use, that was driven by energy prices (4). In contrast, from 1985 to 1990, the energy input per unit of output has been almost flat (2) as a consequence of falling prices. The average price the U.S. chemical industry paid for natural gas fell by one-third between 1985 and 1988 (1,5). 

Tages-. day daily, diurnal surface, -erz, n. openwork ore. -frage, /. question of the day, immediate problem, -leistung, /. daily output. -licht, n. daylight, -oberflache,/. surface of the ground, -preis, m. current price, -wasser, n. surface water, -zeit,/. daytime hour of the day. 

Inputs and outputs usually can be valued according to market price. The opportunity cost of any choice is the best opportunity that has to be given up to make that choice. For the firm, the opportunity cost of oil or natural gas is measured by the price the firm must pay for it. That does not imply that the firm will always choose the cheapest fuel, because the costs of using the fuel must also be considered. Even in a sit-... 

Between 1899 and 1919, as demand for gasoline grew, the price increased more than 135 percent, from 10.8 cents/gal to 25.4 cents/gal. From 1929 to 1941, gasoline use by passenger cars increased from 256.7 million barrels to 291.5 million barrels. Consumption of aviation fuel went from only 753,000 barrels in 1929 to over 6.4 million barrels at the start ofWorld War II. By 1941, gasoline accounted for over one-half of petroleum products with 90 percent of gasoline output used as fuel for automotive and aircraft engines. 

For businesses the demand for energy is the demand for a factor of production. Its demand depends on the price ol the energy demanded (P) as well as the price of its output (P ), technology (T) and prices of other factors of production—land, labor, and capital—that might be substitutes (P,) nr complements (PJ in consumption. Environmental policy (E, ) might also affect the demand for fuel. If this is aggregate business demand for energy the number of businesses is also relevant. 

Output (million tons/yr) Price ( /ton) Total output value (Jmillion/yr)... 

It can be fundamentally stated that surfactants covering nearly all tasks can be derived from phosphoric acid. It is often only the somewhat higher price blocking the same widespread use of phosphorus-containing surfactants compared to the output of mass surfactants. The fraction of phosphorus-containing surfactants reaches about 1 % of total surfactant production. 

Any forecast of income requires a prediction of future output volumes by product category and their prices. With the withdrawal of so many guaranteed prices with the free market economy, the forecasting of prices is particularly difficult. It may be relatively easy for milk, and possibly wheat, but is much harder for volatile enterprises such as beef, pigs (which have never had a guaranteed price) and turkeys. 

Pricing and output, and calculating the break-even point. 

The costings exercise also shows the output that is required to reach break-even point. The break-even point refers to the price and quantity sold that will just cover all costs. At this price and sales level, no profit is made, nor will you be losing money. Break-even is when ... 

In a petroleum refinery a large number of different products are produced, and the demand for some of these products is seasonal. For instance, there is not much need for residential fuel oil in the summer. The price of products also varies from day to day. To optimize the company s profit, it is therefore necessary periodically to vary the amount of each product produced. This can be done by changing the amounts of material sent to cracking units and reformers and by changing the conditions in these and other process steps. Some petroleum companies provide a computer with the data on market prices, current inventories, and crude oil compositions. The computer output then specifies the operating conditions that will yield the greatest profit for the company. The computer could then make the changes in these conditions directly, or this could be done manually. 

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