Fuels, residential

EossH fuel Residential Commercial Industrial Transportation Utihty electricity ... 

Fossil fuel Residential Commercial Industrial Transp ortation Utility electricity0... 

SOFC systems can be designed to include a heat recovery component such as an adsorption chiller heater for CHP applications [72-76]. An example is a small (1-lOkW) methane-fueled residential CHP SOFC system that integrates CGR, AGR, and internal reforming [73]. The system consists of a fuel-cell stack, steam prereformer, various fluid delivery devices (blowers, ejectors, compressor, and water pump), heat exchangers, and catalytic combustor and power conditioning device along with a heat recovery component. Based on certain system parameters (50active area, nominal cell temperature of 800 °G, current density of 0.57 A cm , power density of0.40-0.43 Wcm , S/G ratio of 2.0, SOFC... 

Residential sheathing Residual fuel Residual fuel oil Residual gas analyzers... 

X 10 J/kg(10.4 X 10 Btu/lb) in 1990. The shift in coal production toward western coal deposits also reflects the shift in coal utilization patterns (Table 7). Electric utiUties are increasing coal consumption on both absolute and percentage bases, whereas coke plants, other industrial operations, and residential and commercial coal users are decreasing use of this soHd fossil fuel. 

Several important generalizations can be made. The first is that fossil fuel prices are primary competition for biomass energy. Table 28 summarizes 1990 U.S. tabulations of average, consumption-weighted, deflvered fossil fuel prices by end-use sector (90). The deflvered price of a given fossil fuel is not the same to each end user ie, the residential sector normally pays more for fuels than the other sectors, and large end users pay less. 

Fuel. Natural gas is used as a primary fuel and source of heat energy throughout the iadustrialized countries for a broad range of residential, commercial, and iadustrial appHcations. The methane and other hydrocarbons react readily with oxygen to release heat by forming carbon dioxide and water through a series of kinetic steps that results ia the overall reaction,... 

Figure 3 provides a comparison of the energy costs in the U.S. residential market for natural gas, electricity, or No. 2 fuel oil (1). The prices of all three forms of energy to residential users have increased for the period shown. Electrical energy has had the largest doUar increase. 

Year Chemical Residential and commercial heating Engine fuel Industrial UtiHty gas Motor fuel blending Farm Export Other Total... 

Residential and commercial fuel demands represent about 24% of total U.S. LPG consumption. Although this market demand is weather dependent, it has assumed the characteristics of a mature market. Growth is related to the general economic trends. 

Cooper, J. A. (ed.), "Residential Solid Fuels Environmental Impacts and Solutions," Oregon Graduate Center, Beaverton, OR, 1981. 

Biofuels are used to create a wide variety of energy sources. Ever since the harnessing of fire, biomass has been used for heating and conking. Residential burning of biomass continues to be a primary source of fuel in less industrialized nations, but also has been used as fuel for electricity generation, and converted to liquid transportation fuels. 

In total, cars and light trucks consume nearly three-fifths of all fuel used by U.S. transportation. In spite of a more than 50 percent increase in average fuel efficiency since 1973, the U.S. cars still consume between 25 to 55 percent more fuel per unit distance than the average in European countries (11.6 1 per 100 kilometers compared to 9.1 1 in Germany, and 7.4 1 in Denmark in 1995). All forms of residential consumption and private transportation thus claim more than 2 toe per capita in the United States, compared to less than 1 toe in Europe and about 0.75 toe in Japan. 

Tn the early to mid-1980s, retail gas prices began to rise as the more expensive new gas constituted an increasing percentage of the pipelines average cost of gas. This drove consumer prices above the level that would exist in a competitive market, and demand for natural gas was subsequently reduced as large industrial customers switched to other fuels. Also reducing demand were the Fuel Use Act, which prohibited the use of natural gas as a boiler fuel, increased consen a-tion by residential and commercial customers, warnier-than-normal winters, and an economic recession. 

Fuel cells are also used for stationary plants in hotels and hospitals, for example. The production of 5-10 kW residential stacks is expected in the United States. 

---