Poultry minerals

Because of the simplicity of swiae and poultry feeds, most feed manufacturers add vitamins (qv) and trace minerals to ensure an adequate supply of essential nutrients. Amino acids (qv) such as methionine [7005-18-7] lysiae [56-87-17, threonine [36676-50-3] and tryptophan [6912-86-3], produced by chemical synthesis or by fermentation (qv), are used to fortify swiae and poultry diets. The use of these supplements to provide the essential amino acids permits diets with lower total cmde proteia coateat. 

Animal Feed. In animal feeds (1—3% lecithin) lecithin is an emulsifier wetting and dispersiag agent energy source antioxidant surfactant source of choline, organically combiaed phosphoms and iaositol and Hpotropic agent. It is used ia a milk replacer formula for calves (approximately 10,000 t of lecithin ate used for this purpose) and for veal production, ia mineral feeds, poultry feeds, fish foods, pet foods, and feeds for fur-beating animals (30). 

One can estimate that there is a fair good correlation between N produced in animal manure and the ammonia emission. As the production of cattle slurry is linked with grassland and in many regions the main part of the manure from pigs and poultry is spread on arable land, there is a risk for underestimating the ammonia emissions from cattle slurry. In table II an estimate is made of the total production of mineral N in animal manure in the Netherlands. 

From this table it can be concluded that even in the Netherlands, with a relative high stocking rate for pigs and poultry, more than two thirds of the mineral N is produced by cattle. 

It stands to reason that the highest risks occur in regions where a high cattle density coincides with a large number of pigs and poultry. In a region with 3 cows/ha the N production in manure is 250 kg/ha. If half of the mineral N is lost this means an emission of 60 kg N/ha. This is equal to the deposition in woodlands reported by van Breemen... 

Figure 4.2. Carbon released as C02 from unamended soil and soils amended with pig slurry (PS), poultry manure (PM), cattle farmyard manure (FYM), aerobic sewage sludge (SS), municipal solid waste fuse compost (RC), and rye straw (RS) at a rate of lOgkg1 during incubation at 22 °C. Reprinted from Levi-Minzi, R., Riffaldi, R., and Saviozzi, A. (1990). Carbon mineralization in soil amended with different organic materials. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 31, 325-335, with permission from Elsevier.

One very useful feature of the regulations is the inclusion of a detailed list of permitted feed ingredients (see Chapter 4, this volume). More countries should follow the New Zealand example. The minerals and trace elements used in animal feeding have to be of natural origin or, failing that, synthetic in the same form as natural products. Synthetic vitamins identical to natural vitamins are allowed. Roughage, fresh or dried, or silage must be added to the daily ration for poultry but the quantity is not specified. 

Like all other animals, poultry require five components in their diet as a source of nutrients energy, protein, minerals, vitamins and water. A nutrient shortage or imbalance in relation to other nutrients will affect performance adversely. Poultry need a well-balanced and easily digested diet for optimal production of eggs and meat and are very sensitive to dietary quality because they grow quickly and make relatively little use of fibrous, bulky feeds such as lucerne hay or pasture, since they are non-ruminants (have a simple stomach compartment). 

Poultry need at least 14 mineral elements (Table 3.4) and it is possible that other minerals may also be essential in the body. Under natural conditions it is likely that poultry can obtain part of their mineral requirements by ingesting pasture and pecking in the soil. However, these sources cannot be guaranteed to provide all of the requirements consistently. Therefore, poultry diets must be supplemented with minerals. 

Of the essential mineral elements, those likely to be deficient in poultry diets are calcium, phosphorus, sodium, copper, iodine, manganese, selenium and zinc. Deficiencies of the other essential mineral elements are less common and the feeds used probably contain them in sufficient quantities. There are some indications that magnesium supplementation may be beneficial under certain situations. 

Sodium, potassium and chloride are the primary dietary ions that influence the electrolytic balance and acid-base status, and the proper dietary balance of sodium, potassium and chloride is necessary for growth, bone development, eggshell quality and AA utilization. Potassium is the third most abundant mineral in the body after calcium and phosphorus, and is the most abundant mineral in muscle tissue. It is involved in electrolyte balance and neuromuscular function. The content of potassium in poultry diets is usually adequate. Chloride is present in gastric juice and chlorine is part of the HC1 molecule which assists in the breakdown of feed in the proventriculus. Sodium is essential for nerve membrane stimulation and ionic transport across cell membranes. Signs of sodium, potassium or chloride deficiency include reduced appetite, poor growth, dehydration and increased mortality. 

Six trace minerals have been shown to be needed as supplements in poultry diets iron, copper, zinc, manganese, iodine and selenium. Subclinical trace... 

Gross necropsy lesions of a selenium deficiency are identical to those of a vitamin E deficiency (NRC, 1994) and include exudative diathesis and myopathy of the gizzard. Paleness and dystrophy of the skeletal muscles (white muscle disease) are also common. The incidence and degree of selenium deficiency may be increased by environmental stress. Selenium is generally included in trace mineral premixes. Common sources for supplementation of poultry diets are sodium selenite and sodium selenate. Selenium yeast is also used in conventional diets. 

Atteh, J.O. and Leeson, S. (1983) Effects of dietary fatty acids and calcium levels on performance and mineral metabolism of broiler chickens. Poultry Science 62, 2412-2419. 

Inal, F., Coskun, B., Giilsen, N. and Kurtoglu, V (2001) The effects of withdrawal of vitamin and trace mineral supplements from layer diets on egg yield and trace mineral composition. British Poultry Science 42, 77-80. 

Patel, K.P., Edwards, H.M. and Baker, D.H. (1997) Removal of vitamin and trace mineral supplements from broiler finisher diets. Journal of Applied Poultry Research 6, 191-198. 

Shelton, J.L. and Southern, L.L. (2006) Effects of phytase addition with or without a trace mineral premix on growth performance, bone response variables, and tissue mineral concentrations in commercial broilers. Journal of Applied Poultry Research 15,94—102. 

Maurice et al. (1985) evaluated naked oats as a potential feedstuff for poultry feeding and reported that this grain was superior to maize in AA profile and mineral content. Total lipid was 68.5 g/kg with a content of 309 g/ kg linoleic acid, which is higher than that of most cereal grains, and contributed to a relatively high ME value of 13.31 MJ/kg. The naked oats contained 4 g/kg total P and a phytic acid concentration of 10.7g/kg. 

Soybean meal is generally low in minerals and vitamins (except choline and folic acid). About two-thirds of the P in soybeans is bound as phytate and is mostly unavailable to animals. This compound also chelates mineral elements including Ca, magnesium, potassium, iron and zinc, rendering them unavailable to poultry. Therefore, it is important that diets based on soybean meal contain adequate amounts of these trace minerals. Another approach to the phytate problem is to add phytase, a phytic acid degrading enzyme, to the feed to release phytin-bound P. A benefit of this approach is that less P needs to be added to the diet, reducing excess P loading into the environment. 

Waste or scrap potato chips, french fries or crisps which have been cooked in oil for human consumption are very palatable and high in energy due to the fat taken up in deep frying. They consist of about 500g/kg starch, 350g/kg fat, 50g/kg CP and 30g/kg minerals, mainly potassium and sodium salts. Generally they have a high salt content, and a plentiful supply of fresh water should be made available if they are used in poultry diets. They can be included in diets for poultry at low levels. 

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