Planting orchards

Before the establishment of organic orchards, it is essential to consider practical experience and local knowledge about the most suitable sites and microclimatic conditions (reviewed bv Webster, 2005 Barden and Neilson, 2003) as well as species and cultivar suitability. These factors should be considered before planting orchards, because it is more difficult than in conventional production to overcome problems associated with poor choice of site and variety/cultivar. However, some site-specific problems may be addressed within certain limits (e.g. suboptimal soil conditions) and should be improved before planting a new orchard (e.g. installation of drainage to prevent temporary water logging,... 

Burning Burning is sometimes employed for land preparation before planting orchards and is common in the tropics. Burning can control not only weeds, but also other pests. However, burning may cause tree damage in established orchards if a large amount of dry weeds is available as fuel (Jordan and Day, 1970). 

There is therefore no need for initial nitrogen fertilization in newly planted orchards. 

CONTROL. In old orchards these two fungal diseases are the second most important fungal disease after scab. In some years the infection can affect the entire crop in densely planted orchards. 

Use of higher plants has attracted attention for the remediation of TCE-contaminated aquatic systems, and in particular the use of hybrid poplar (Newman et al. 1999). Although this was encouraged by the removal of labeled TCE to >90% using hybrid poplar under hydroponic conditions (Orchard et al. 2000), and the ability of hybrid poplar to metabolize TCE (Newman et al. 1997 Shang et al. 2001), there are additional considerations that must be evaluated to determine its general applicability. 

Orchard BJ, WJ Doucette, JK Chard, B Bugbee (2000) Uptake of trichloroethylene by hybrid poplar trees grown hydroponically in flow-through plant growth chambers. Environ Toxicol Chem 19 895-903. 

The hypothesis of Gray and Bonner (31, 32) that 3-acetyl-6-methoxybenzaldehyde, which is found in the leaves of Encelia farinosa and in the soil beneath these plants, is responsible for the suppression of other plant species has not been substantiated by Muller (33, 34). The same is true for the presumed role of trans-cinnamic acid in "soil sickness associated with guayule (Parthenium argentatum), for the amygdalin of peach roots, and for the phlorizin of apple roots or its breakdown products (35), which were thought to be associated with the "soil sickness" of orchards. 

There is a tremendous financial investment in our agriculture. The place which this country occupies in world leadership today is due in part to our food-producing capacity. To maintain that position at a time when portentous predictions are rife regarding an overpopulated world, we need ever-improved chemical aids, but we must, at the same time, impair neither the quantity nor quality of our orchards and vineyards. Frequently it takes 10 to 20 years or even more before we see the ultimate effects of continued usage of chemicals on plants. The financial and social losses which can result from improper or unduly hasty use of chemicals should temper profits with caution. 

The purpose of this work was to determine the toxicity to mosquito larvae of insecticide spray residues. That certain insecticides are translocated in plants (4, 5) adds impetus to this study. Fresh orchard fruit sprayed or dusted with preparations containing parathion (0,0-diethyl O-p-nitrophenyl thiophosphate), tetraethyl pyrophosphate (TEPP, HEPP), DDD [2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)-l,l-dichloroethane], DDT [2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)-l,l,l-trichloroethane], chlorinated camphene, and basic lead arsenate were shipped from California to Yonkers, N. Y., by air express for bioassay. 

Conservative is used to define orchard and management factors that once introduced cannot, or are extremely difficult to, change or require substantial additional investment to do so. Among these are soil and other site-specific conditions, choice of variety/cultivar and rootstock, planting density and tree canopy formation, system stabilisation measures at orchard set-up and installations to buffer extreme events. 

Robinson, T.L. (2003). Apple orchard planting systems , in Ferree D.C. and Warrington I.J. Apples Botany, Production and Uses, CABI Publishing, Oxon and Cambridge-MA, 345 108. 

Land use in the Ebro River basin has been traditionally based on agricultural crops, such as vineyards, orchards, and maize. Up to 783,948 Ha are dedicated to agriculture, and mainly in the mid and lower Ebro sections, are irrigated. Nowadays, industry is a relevant activity at the most important cities (e.g., Zaragoza, Pamplona). Hydroelectric energy production uses about 8,297 m3/s in 340 hydroelectric plants at the Ebro River basin. Water of the Ebro River is also used for cooling nuclear and thermic plants. Urban water demand is 5% of that used for agriculture. 

Soybean, Glycine max Total As orchards) whole rodents contain <0.002 mg As/kg fresh weight (vs. ND in untreated orchards) Toxic signs at plant residues >1 mg total As/kg 1... 

Tjamos EC, Biris DA, Paplomatas EJ (1991) Recovery of olive trees with Verticillium wilt after individual application of soil solarization in established olive orchards. Plant Dis 75 557-562... 

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