Nuremberg Code

Does the Nuremberg Code provide a basis for liability ... 

In 1950, the Council gave the Secretary of the Army the responsibility and authority for any program conducted or sponsored by the Army. The Secretary was to ensure adherence to both the Organization of the Army Act and the Nuremberg code. There was no evidence that he delegated this authority to a lower level. 

Abramson Aerosol Study of LSD TETRAHYDROCANNABINOLS ETHYL ALCOHOL BUTYROPHENONES VOLUNTEER STATISTICS FOLLOW-UP STUDIES THE NUREMBERG CODE... 

Nuremberg Code - Trials of war criminals before Nuremberg Military Tribunals under Control Council Law No 10 Vol 2 (Washington DC US Government Printing Office 1949). 

A very useful review of the history and development of the Declaration of Helsinki in the last four decades from its evolution from the principles enunciated in the Nuremberg Code of 1947 to the current version has been published in the British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology and is recommended reading, it includes the texts of the various versions of the Declaration. 

For more than 50 years, scientists, physicians, bioethi-cists, and the media have focused on a variety of issues in research with human subjects, or clinical research. In 1948, in response to the atrocities perpetrated by Nazi experimentation, the Nuremberg Code was developed to set forth guidelines for the acceptable conduct of scientific research. In 1964 the World Medical Association adopted the Declaration of Helsinki, which specifically guides physicians in biomedical research. These documents specify basic moral guidelines ultimately founded on concerns for autonomy, beneficence, and justice. The guidelines require the following ... 

In addition to the Nuremberg Code and Declaration of Helsinki, The International Ethical Guidelines for Biomedical Research Involving Human Subjects was issued in 1982 and revised in 1993 by the Council for the International Organization of Medical Sciences (CIOMS). Those guidelines define national policies for biomedical research, apply ethical standards to the circumstances often present in research in economically developing nations, and define mechanisms for ethical review of human subjects research. 

D) When an individual has a conflict between his or her research interests and the requirements set forth by the Nuremberg Code... 

A. A conflict of interest occurs when an individual s personal interests conflict with official responsibilities, such as those required by one s profession. So, for example, a physician who owns shares in a drug company that is sponsoring a clinical trial in which the doctor enrolls patients may have a conflict of interest. Conflicts of interest do not generally pertain to conflicts between researchers or the requirements set forth by the Nuremberg Code. 

Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments, Part I, Chapter 3, Supreme Court Dissents Invoke the Nuremberg Code. http // www.eh.doe.gov/ohre/roadmap/ achre/Chap3 4.html. 

Protection of a patient s interest who participates in a research project has led to many statements and laws. A major start was the Nuremberg Code (10). In the United States, the Office of Protection from Research Risks (OPRR) has issued regulations known as the Common Rule. Almost everywhere is institutional review boards, safeguarding the rights of the individuals. 

The conduct of the yellow fever experiments was the forerunner of the current practice of informed consent and was cited in the formulation of the Nuremberg Code and in many other discussions about the ethics of human experimentation. 

Out of the Nuremberg trials in 1947 came the Nuremberg Code, the first code to deal specifically with human experimentation. It created ethical guidelines for the conduct of medical research throughout the world. Although many researchers had customarily obtained consent from volunteers in the past, it was the Nuremberg Code that first established the practice formally. The code deals with self-experimentation in Article 5, which states No experiment should be conducted where there is an a priori reason to believe that death or disabling injury will occur except, perhaps, in those experiments where the experimental physicians also serve as subjects. ... 

The Nuremberg Code is based on the principle of informed consent and this is exactly what doctors, nurses, health care agencies like the CDC, FDA, ABA, WHO and the pharmaceutical companies violate with common vaccination policies. 

Mandatory vaccine programs are A violation of the Nuremberg Code in that they force individuals to have medical treatment against their will, or to participate in the functional equivalent... 

Weindling, R The Origins of Informed Consent The International Scientific Commission on Medical War Crimes, and the Nuremberg Code. Bulletin of the History of Medicine 75 (2001) ... 

The modem clinical trial (see section at end of Glossary) is an example of medical research. The two watershed events for the required ethics and structured ethical directives were the Nuremberg Code in response to Nazi experiments and the Helsinki Declaration on Human Rights (1964). These well-publicized events laid out the basic ethical principles for medical researchers to follow. Yet these principles were violated in several other reference cases and these in turn gave rise to the modem US regulations. 

---